Women in Vietnam Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Ladies in Vietnam - Research Paper Example This explanation causes antiquarians to allude to the war as a virus war. The war occurred in Cambodia and included assaults and attacks on rival gatherings. The adversary bunches for this situation were the Americans and the individuals of South Vietnam. The war had look and demolish activities that served to show the measure of intensity that each gathering had over the other. The United States had its hypothesis on the war as it considered it to be a method of forestalling the spread of socialism toward the west, as it favored utilizing the free enterprise arrangement. The war along these lines had a significant figure to the warriors as each had a go at supporting their approaches. In the war, there were ladies that served to help the real warriors who were generally men (Gunusky 37). Ladies were powerful in the advancement of the war. This is on the grounds that they were there to offer their help which if coming up short on, the contenders on each side couldn't have battled as successfully as they did. The ladies were the soldier’s spouses, sisters and even moms taken up by the military around then to go about as warriors of war. They got preparing for all the missions that were to happen and consequently were gifted out in the field. The ladies had various jobs in the war. There were the individuals who were skilled in the field and had the uncommon chance to serve in the war as real warriors along their male partners. The ladies demonstrated ceaseless endeavors and want to enable their sides to win. For the ladies that were not solid or rather talented enough to go out to the field and face the opponents in a live way, they were appointed various parts of work as indicated by their inherent abilities. One of the most distinguished jobs that the ladies were given was crafted by clinical specialists or rather they were given the expected set of responsibilities of medical attendants (Tunner 76). The medical caretakers had the severe and arduous occ upations of helping injured fighters when assaults occurred. As indicated by the networks that lived in the Vietnam area, they accepted crafted by nursing to be an ability that runs in the family and thus the majority of the attendants that were taken in needed to convey along other relatives to aid their works. Since the medical caretakers were to take their exercises to places where the war was legitimately occurring, they needed to preparing on essential weaponry use in the event of assault. A portion of the medical caretakers didn't totally complete their nursing as they were taken in to a 10-day preparing camp at Ft. Sam Houston (Caylor 65). With this preparation, they could be low maintenance nurture however could likewise work the grounds on the off chance that there was a shy of armed force officials to complete a snare because of variables, for example, demise or general ineptitude. Before the war had gotten genuine, the medical attendants were given a main part of harmed p atients and educated to fix them inside a given time length. This was persuasive, as it would assist them with getting ready both mentally and truly for the sort of work that they would do in the fields. At the point when the war would get more earnestly and the foe bunches drawing near, there would be numerous setbacks and along these lines the need of fitness on the attendants to help fix warriors quick. After recuperating, the troopers were required back on the field to proceed with the war so as not to loan specialist their side in need of help because of absence of officers. The attendants additionally had fundamental preparing of how to utilize a compass and a radio alarm. This was significant in light of the fact that few out of every odd time could the troopers figure out how to bring back the injured officers to the camp base. With the compass and the radio, the officers in the field could make radio cautions to the medical caretakers. The radios had various signals through which they had an open line of correspondence. They would request help and give the necessary orders and orientation (Neel 37). The ladies then again with the

Control Theory And Gang Related Crime Criminology Essay

Control Theory And Gang Related Crime Criminology Essay Talk about how control hypothesis and style hypothesis sufficiently clarifies group related wrongdoing This article will assist us with understanding the purposes for pack related wrongdoing. To examine the reasons for pack related wrongdoing we will take a gander at two criminology hypotheses. Elegance and control hypothesis will be utilized to comprehend and to exhibit a conversation on the issue. We will take a gander at every one of the hypotheses independently and afterward apply them to posse related wrongdoing. Style or traditional school has been around for very impressive time. A gathering of rationalists of the eighteenth century contended that human issues must be handled in a sensible and increasingly conventional way(Coleman, Norris. 2000. p.17).There was an inclination that criminal equity arrangement of the eighteenth century was excessively unfeeling, insufficient and judges had an excessive amount of carefulness and discipline was too barbaric(Coleman, Norris. 2000. p.18). That is the motivation behind why elegance contends: an excess of policing or discipline could change decent citizens(Jacobs. 2009. p.97). We would feel that harsher discipline would change the measure of wrongdoing, anyway elegance stands a solid case that additionally policing and harder sentences would not support the cause(Jacobs. 2009. p.97). From everything what we have looked so far we can say. Elegance is so worried about the extreme condemning then most likely it would propose us how tackle the wrongdoi ng. Elegance will accept that individuals settle on sane decisions (Jacobs. 2009. p.97) and consequently this is the motivation behind why they perpetrate wrongdoing. For certain individuals delight and addition that they get from wrongdoing is significantly bigger than the agony of punishment(Coleman, Norris. 2000. p.18). A few people get so troubled thus fixated on what they believe is bad form towards a specific gathering of individuals or race that they are prepared for the most extraordinary measures. For instance of these measures we could give you London 7/7. One of the aircraft behind the assault just did this as he was happy to vindicate England for how the police treated his own kind(Jacobs. 2009. p.98). One of the principle interests of style is the prompt conditions that encompasses the offence(Jacobs. 2009. p.98). In this manner style feels that we all are potential criminals(Jacobs. 2009. p.98). As needs be to elegance criminology need to squeeze one principle question: regardless of whether the law is as a rule too thoroughly or delicately enforced(Jacobs. 2009. p.98). Here, on one hand, we have elegance that contends that an excess of policing and intense sentences are not the appropriate response, yet, then again, style is worried that the law is delicately upheld. Elegance as such is a serious extraordinary reference point in human conduct study. Elegance is orientated on the prompt conditions that have set off a crime(Jacobs. 2009. p.99). This gives us some direction with regards to what will be the primary things that style would be keen on and focusing more than everything else. In elegance we would need to look at why as an open doors emerge for individuals to carry out w rongdoing. Why this is something that is going on in specific regions and fundamentally to particular sorts of individuals and certain seasons of day(Jacobs. 2009. p.99). A portion of the researchers have worries that abusive and uncalled for laws could transform individuals into hoodlums. Another conviction of elegance is that individuals are mostly guided by unrestrained choice and indulgence and subsequently these two variables are the ones that drive the crime(OConnor. 2006). As we saw before style is worried about intense discipline and that is the motivation behind why every single offense must have equivalent treatment under the law(OConnor. 2006). Take a gander at this dubious idea in our brain, however totally typical under style: terrible individuals are just the aftereffect of awful laws (OConnor. 2006). Next thing that we need to take a gander at is control hypothesis. Control hypothesis is worried on the measures that would stop individuals to carry out and participate in wrongdoing and criminal activities(Jacobs. 2009. p.163). Control hypothesis contends that wrongdoing exists and is occurring where there are chances to perpetrate wrongdoing and where is a finished absence of socio-central(family)( Jacobs. 2009. p.163). Along these lines there will be no wrongdoing or as meager as none where appropriate arrangements are set up, for example, compelling controls and absence of opportunities(Jacobs. 2009. p.163). Durkheim had a hypothesis that social world is kept up by reconciliation and regulation(Jacobs. 2009. p.163). Control hypothesis has risen up out of the discoveries on family and social bonds under the Chicago School. Family and neighborhood network began to free their grasps on relatives and network in general(Jacobs. 2009. p.163). Throughout the years numerous criminologists have made their own particular manners of control hypothesis with the key issues that they thought were fundamental. Rather than focusing on why individuals carry out wrongdoing, Reiss was increasingly worried on the most proficient method to build up an instrument to foresee which variables are to accused behind crime(Jacobs. 2009. p.163). Accordingly Reiss saw reprobate gathering of individuals not as a disarranged yet rather a practical result of the disappointment. Disappointment of individual and social controls. In this manner the key issues from Reiss perspective is that the family, society and neighborhood were the principle wellsprings of the disappointment (Jacobs. 2009. p.163). The entirety of the above were in the positions which would impact the present and fate of the child(Jacobs. 2009. p.163). What do we escape this: mediation with the kid at the early long stretches of his life could have a basic and a key impact to success(Jacobs. 2009. p.163). Anyway one wrong choice could impact the manner in which this youngster will carry on with an amazing remainder. Then again Nye(1958) adopted totally extraordinary strategy in his investigations of control hypothesis. He was searching for a clarifications regarding why wrongdoing isn't more common(Jacobs. 2009. p.164). In his investigations Nye reasoned that the most significant REAGENT of the social control was the people family(Jacobs. 2009. p.164). Nye concocted four kinds of control: immediate, circuitous, disguised control and elective fulfillment. The key one in his psyche was the family, school and police. They control individuals utilizing direct limitations joined by discipline. Anyway different kinds of control hypothesis would strengthen each other relying upon the setting of the individual(Jacobs. 2009. p.164). Another who had his feeling was Reckless(1967) who considered family to be the fundamental wellspring of impact of a little kid. Crazy understood that urban way of life contained numerous impulses to perpetrate wrongdoing. Foolish concocted a recommendation that every individual needs to get through various obstructions to carry out wrongdoing. These obstructions were internal and external regulation where inward was a discretion and external was social control(Jacobs. 2009. p.164). Crazy principle concern was focusing on the discretion or so as called inward regulation. He proposed that we can control ourselves paying little mind to what occurs around us(Jacobs. 2009. p.1634). As to internal circle regulation Reckless concocted four key components: self idea, objective direction and two later ones dissatisfaction resistance and standard maintenance. Careless has found that standard disintegration is more serious issue than standard maintenance. Sykes and Matza(1957) contends that it takes just a brief moment to carry out a wrongdoing. In this manner for the individuals who were engaged with crimes and misconduct it just took a little piece of their life(Jacobs. 2009. p.165). What were they engaged with between carrying out wrongdoings? Might it be able to be a little and impermanent float away from wrongdoing? According to Sykes and Matza numerous guilty parties despite everything had bonds with social request. Sykes and Matza attempts to clarify this kind of conduct and as a piece of clarification they accepted that we would learn ordinary conduct runs by learning the reasons or strategies of balance( Jacobs. 2009. p.165). In a basic terms we attempt to clarify our dealings and disregard a self-evident. We deny our conduct and even casualties. Hirschi(1969) then again accepted that social holding hold the way to reputable and reprobate behaviour(Jacobs. 2009. p.165). Social bonds must be solid and powerful or in any case individuals would go themselves to misconduct. The key factor for this drive would be rewards that can be picked up. Hirschi ordered the social bonds as: connection, responsibility, contribution and conviction. Connection is a significant social piece of an individual. A reprobate individual will never have a similar social bonds with his companions, educators, family members as an individual who is out of the wrongdoing scene. Worry for people's opinion of us is the driver or controller of our activities. Responsibility is another case of an ideal people conduct. It takes one little idiotic act to destroy your life and everything that you have worked in your life. So this is something that you are setting out to free. Along these lines wrongdoing won't be a possibility for you. Association and conviction could be consolidated as one. You have confidence in yourself and you are focused on the guidelines of society. In view of this you will be associated with however many exercises as could be allowed so you can be occupied and lack the capacity to deal with wrongdoing. Having taken a gander at criminology speculations let us take a gander at the genuine posses. Some state that posses are made suddenly. Anyway they become coordinated in the public eye by conflict(Greene, 2007. p.1375). Packs vary in the individuals they all have. The sort of exercises they do. What type connections do these posses have with neighborhood community(Conly. 1993. p.20). Posses can be characterized as: gathering of individuals associated with the noteworthy measure of introverted activity(Conly. 1993. p.7). Perusing all the abovementioned, we see that family has a monstrous job in childrens family. One of the key focuses in charge hypothesis is family. Control from the family has to have the greatest effect in transit the kid takes a gander at the world. Society and neighborhood comes after. In the general public we a

Ultimate Guide to Program Management

Ultimate Guide to Program Management Management is a vital ingredient towards achieving organizational goals. More often than not, however, our knowledge about this discipline is limited to the management of people and resources, but not really a lot about the management of activities and processes. When we do, we are more focused on the short-term projects, not knowing that there is a bigger, wider discipline at work. The short-term approach may work for many smaller operations, but if we are talking about larger companies, there is a need for a more sweeping approach, one that encompasses more than one or two projects at one time. © Shutterstock.com | therombWe will show you 1) what is program management, 2) the benefits of using program management, 3) the differences between program and project management, 4) the role of a program manager, and 5) major program management tools and techniques.PROGRAM MANAGEMENTAccording to the Program Management Institute (PMI), program management involves a “group of related projects that are managed in a coordinated manner in order to obtain benefits and control, which are not present if said projects were individually managed”.This involves a collective of large-scale individual yet related or interdependent projects that span more than one year, with the deliverables expected to be completed and submitted in succession or at intervals. These individual deliverables are then taken as a whole when evaluating the program. It also often involves large sums of money, incurring millions of dollars in costs. Naturally, it is also expected that more than a few people are invo lved in the program. More often than not, in large and complex programs, there could be more than a couple of hundreds of people involved in the program at one point or another.Program management refers to the combination of all the abilities and resources of the organization, including, but not limited to, the aspects of planning, progress monitoring, scheduling, cost tracking, and reporting of ongoing and completed activities into one comprehensive and integrated program.A simple example would be a company manufacturing mobile phones. The company plans to launch a new line of mobile phones to rival, say, Apple’s iPhone within the next 12 months. This is a major undertaking, and one that requires all the resources of the company to be put to use. Early on, all divisions of the company will be engaged, such as the product development team, the design team, the marketing team, and even the distribution team. They each have their own projects, but they are all related in that they a re working towards the same objective: the launch of the new line of mobile phones.There is a need to make all these groups or projects cohesive, so program management is called for. This will ensure that all the efforts are coordinated. Dozens and even hundreds of people may be involved, but there is one single figure that exercises centralized authority over all aspects of the program: the Program Manager.Program management involves the following functions:Oversight of the application and execution related to projects. It does not involve only one or two projects. Programs are comprised of several projects that are related or bound by a single goal or objective. They are also expected to adhere to predetermined standards and processes when they are executed. Through program management, these projects are overseen with the end (the organization’s strategic goals) always in sight.Establishment of business and technical processes. Effective program management entails having busines s and technical processes firmly in place before any project or undertaking is started.Audit and implementation of established processes. There is a need to always review if the processes are implemented properly and efficiently. There is bound to be a change in business operations that will require the processes to be tweaked or altered in order to achieve best results. For example, some technical processes may have to be revamped due to the introduction of new technologies.Analysis of performance of the members of the organization and the organization as a whole. It is not just the business and technical processes that need review. Program management will also put the individual and team performances of members of the organization in the spotlight.Measurement and monitoring. Decisions are made based on historical information derived from actual results and performance. Program management makes it possible to monitor and measure the performance and conduct of projects towards achie ving organizational goals, and the information gathered will be used by top management in all its future decision-making processes.BENEFITS OF PROGRAM MANAGEMENTOf course, the ultimate benefit of program management is the achievement of the company’s business goals. There are many ways that an effective program management can accomplish that.It provides top management with a comprehensive view of the organization and its activities.If the project-by-project approach was taken in monitoring the activities or progress of the organization, you can expect it to take a long time, not to mention the confusion that would come with it. Program managers can take a coordinated approach in handling and evaluating the projects, which may span different departments or areas of the organization, but are still connected. Program managers will be able to tell right away which projects are doing well, which ones need more work, and which ones are not going to benefit the organization in the end. T his aids senior levels of management in their decision-making processes.It ensures that all activities within the organization are aligned towards its goals.Every evaluation of program managers of the different projects will be in accordance with the strategic goals of the organization. They are responsible for evaluating whether the activities of a project will help in delivering value, as well as increasing revenue and reducing costs.In program management, reporting is consolidated, which allows for equally consolidated analysis of top level management of the overall progress of the organization towards its goals.It maximizes human and other resources.Effective program management involves putting in place a plan of how the activities will be performed, who will perform them, and what rules or guidelines should govern the performance of the employees as they go about their assigned tasks or activities. There will be clearly defined roles, responsibilities and accountabilities.This establishes uniformity and consistency, such that the members of the organization will still be able to perform effectively even when they move to a new project right after finishing another. This also reduces the cost of having to re-train or re-educate them, or training new people.In the same vein, the organization will also be better able to manage its resources, because they will know which projects to prioritize, and which projects can be integrated.It minimizes mix-ups and disagreements brought about by miscommunication or lack of communication.Program management advocates communications that are more closely-knit than in a usual project environment. The coordinated effort of the program managers will also reduce the number of issues that are related to communication hiccups. The employees are already knowledgeable about the prevailing rules and guidelines, and so they do not have to undergo re-orientation every single time. They are already speaking pretty much the same langu age. Thus, transitions are facilitated more smoothly.It promotes cost efficiencies and allows the organization to enjoy cost savings.Financial management is another aspect where program management does not have too much of a problem with, since it is almost always inclusive of budgeting, including budget execution and implementation. In projects, budget management is not high on the priority list, because the project manager is mostly concerned with completing the project within a certain timeframe and the allotted budget. The broader view of program management does not allow this narrower perspective.All the above benefits also boil down to the organization being able to save on its spending. Say, for example, that there are five ongoing projects within an organization, but there is no program management setup in place. You are looking at five separate budgets, five separate managers, and five different sets of talents. There are also five separate systems for reporting each projec t status or progress to top management. That means that there are five sets of separate expenses. With program management, there are functions that can be consolidated into one, with all five project teams using it. The program manager can develop a setup where all five projects can make use of a single reporting facility, since the reports will all end up with the top management anyway.It facilitates the delivery of change.Program managers can plan and implement the necessary changes in a coordinated manner, and have them delivered and implemented in such a way that the current operations of the business will not be compromised or adversely affected.PROGRAM VS PROJECT MANAGEMENTOftentimes, “program management” and “project management” have been used interchangeably. However, the two are not one and the same.If we are going to speak in general terms, project management refers to the management of projects, while program management refers to managing a group, or portfolio, of projects. In short, program management has a larger scope, and a more ambitious one, too, since it pertains to handling multiple projects simultaneously.Let us break down the differences between the two.As to scope and coverage. As mentioned earlier, programs have a wider scope, encompassing a group of projects. It is safe to say that project management is under the umbrella of program management.As to duration. Program management is more on the long-term side, due to the ongoing nature of programs. Projects, on the other hand, are usually short-term and do not require long-term strategic planning.As to budget and financial management. Program management is bound by the limitations and expectations set forth in the overall budget or financial calendar of the organization. Usually, program managers have to deliver results on a quarterly, semi-annual or annual basis, as the case may be. Projects, on the other hand, due to their short nature, are not bound by the same demand. The proj ect managers are not made to deliver results on regular intervals, mostly only when the project ends. The extent of budgeting and financial planning is also more complex in program management, because it covers revenue, costs and expenditures, and even investing and financing activities. Projects are more focused on costs and expenditures.As to governance and control. Due to its larger scope, programs require more intensive overseeing from program managers and even higher levels of management. More often than not, project management only involves the control or governance of the project manager; senior management rarely takes part in monitoring the individual projects.THE PROGRAM MANAGERWe can also establish the difference between program management and project management by delving deeper into the role of the program manager.The program manager is the person who manages the portfolios, which are composed of individual, smaller projects. His approach is more holistic since, instead of focusing on the schedules, resources and scope of the project, his focus will be on the people involved in all the projects under the program. This means he will have a hand in the overall politics of the program, and in negotiations, if any.More than just dealing with requirements of the projects, the program manager will be looking at the bigger picture, meaning the business strategies and the objectives of the program and the business organization as a whole. He will not be directly involved in the day-to-day activities in the projects within the program. While the project manager’s main concern is the completion of the project on time, within the allotted budget, and with the expected deliverables or output, the program manager will be more concerned with the delivery of value and the maximization of ROI of the business.It goes without saying that being a program manager requires a different skill set from that of a project manager. He should be:A senior-level manager;Prima rily involved in the advancement towards, and achievement of, organizational goals;Able to manage multiple and related projects;Able to achieve benefits and results that would not have been possible if the projects where individually or separately handled;Able to manage horizontally, across all the functional projects within the program.Some companies have precise standards or qualifications for their program managers. They even require them to have advanced skills in budgeting and financial management, since program management also encompasses budgeting. Other intrinsic skills looked for in a program manager include excellent communication skills, contract negotiation skills and time management skills.PROGRAM MANAGEMENT TOOLS AND TECHNIQUESAside from management skills and other skills inherent in the person of the program manager, there are various tools and techniques that he can use in order to efficiently and effectively manage the programs and all the sub-projects within it.App lication of Systems Engineering. You have a program, and you were able to define the overall program goals. Now you have to identify all the activities that must be performed in order to implement the program and achieve those goals. Systems engineering often involves establishing criteria or guidelines for evaluating the project deliverables.Staffing Management Plan. It is possible that, within the organization, one person may be working across several projects. Of course, it is humanly impossible for one person to be in two places at once, working on two separate, although related, projects. That’s why there is a need for a staffing management plan. The staffing management plan comes in handy when:Identifying the human resource needed in a project. This will also help the program manager assess the need to recruit new talent where there is shortage, or reassign tasks and responsibilities where there are idle hands.Pinpointing the particular time period where the specific skill s et of an employee is required in each project. This is especially helpful when individual projects have to come up with their respective work schedules.Alignment Schedule. This program schedule is where the Program Manager keeps track of the milestones of each project such as when it presents its deliverables, when the project or a sub-project is completed, or when key activities are handed off from one project to another. This certainly makes the tracking and monitoring easier for the Program Manager.Program Network Diagram. This is basically a graph or a flow chart that shows the flow and interconnection of the work of the different projects or subprojects. It presents the sequence in which the different projects’ deliverables are completed, and even how they are dependent of one another.Work Breakdown Structure. Keep in mind that program management deals with large-scale, multiple projects. Therefore, there is a need to break them down into smaller units or components. That is what can be achieved by using a Work Breakdown Structure. This is a good way for program managers to organize all the projects’ work into smaller, manageable sections.Program Management Review. The program manager may also opt to hold regular program management reviews, where project leaders and other key players in the projects and subprojects are gathered together in one room for a meeting. Here, they deliver status reports on their respective projects’ progress so far, and risk assessment discussions are also conducted.

The Biological Theory Of Crime Causation - 1082 Words

Crime causation is a complex and daunting field. For centuries, philosophers have pondered the meaning of the concept of cause as it pertains to human behavior. Examining why people commit crime is very important in the ongoing debate of how crime should be handled and prevented. A few of the theories that have emerged and continue to be explored are biological, sociological and psychological theories. While individually and in combination, these theories of crime causation affect human behavior and actions. The biological theory of crime causation includes your genes, body type, and traits. Even though the genes you inherit do put you at a risk of anti-social and criminal behavior, their impact depends on the environment you grew†¦show more content†¦38). A couple examples of the sociological theory include the social structure theory and the social conflict theory. The social structure theory takes a different stance imploring the question that if biologic factors explain crimes, then why does most crime take place in bad neighborhoods? Areas with high unemployment, low-performing and underfunded schools, or citizens with low socioeconomic status are more likely to produce criminals. This can cause conflict, which then ascends between people’s goals and the methods used to obtain them. The social conflict theory’s foundations lie in Marxism/Conflict Theory, where people and gouples interact on the basis of conflict rather than consensus. Concerns of this theory are the role of government in creating a criminogenic (tending to produce crime) environment, the relationship between a capitalist, free enterprise economy and crime rates, and the prevalence of bias in the justice system (Regis University, 2017). Furthermore, with the psychological theory, it may include motivational, inhibiting, decision-making, and learning processes (Farrington, 1993). The most common motivational idea is that people (and especially children) are naturally self-indulgent and selfish, seeking pleasure and avoiding pain, and hence that childrenShow MoreRelatedThe Theories Of Crime Causation1076 Words   |  5 Pages This paper will examine the three main theories of crime causation which comprise the Criminological Theory as well as provide some examples of each. The three main theories of crime causation are biological, sociological and psychological. Each of the three theories have come a long way since their inception and continue to be updated due to new findings through technological and medical advances. 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Thesis: Trait theories and choice theories both assume that humans are self-interested, but their conceptionsRead MoreDomestic Violence : Spousal Abuse1564 Words   |  7 PagesState University, Fresno â€Æ' Domestic violence in a relationship (specifically spousal abuse) has continuously been a perplex issue in a functional society that has been deliberately overlooked and often ignored in a society. According to Criminology: Theory, Research and Policy, intimate partner abuse (spousal abuse) is defined as â€Å"abuse that occurs between current or former heterosexual or homosexual intimates. It includes physical, sexual, and emotional abuse and violence†. It encompasses the ideaRead MoreBiological and Classical School1265 Words   |  6 Pagesunderstanding social behavior of criminals. The members of this school used the approach to the study of crime, which became known as criminology. 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There are manyRead MoreDeterrence Theory Of The Criminal Justice System2120 Words   |  9 PagesUnit 2 DB1 Deterrence Theory Deterrence theory has many ideas as to what constitute deterrence. Some researchers think that it is the main purposes of our criminal justice system. They do agree that it is the main goal when it comes down to discouraging society from committing criminal deeds. Because, of fear of punishment for committing a crime. Some researcher would have you believe that the most powerful deterrent we have is our criminal justice system, because they are the ones that will makeRead More Adolescence and Juvenile Delinquency Essay1644 Words   |  7 Pagesillegal, or criminal behavior by children or adolescents to the degree that it cannot be controlled or corrected by the parents, endangers others in the community, and becomes the concern of a law enforcement agency(1994). I found that most theories about what causes delinquency in children and adolescents originate with families and parenting. Many statistics and studies have been conducted comparing the number of youths that had chosen a delinquent life style, with single parent householdsRead MoreMurder Is A Serious Issue It Is It s Perpetrated By Individuals With A Large Bone Structure Essay1032 Words   |  5 Pagesathletic physic? Murder is the act of unlawfully and deliberately killing someone. Murder is a serious issue it Canada, one biological criminological theory may explain this heinous crime. A connection between a person’s physical build and appearance and their likelihood to commit a crime may be able to be drawn. In the case of murder, Somatotyping may be able to explain this crime. In the year 2015, 604 murders were committed in Canada, with 174 committed in Ontario; respectively 704 attempted murders

Should Prostitution Be Legal - 1150 Words

When the chance to pick an arguable topic arose I chose one that has been particularly sensitive within my own group of friends. The question is: Should prostitution be legal? My question is: Why shouldn’t it? By all means I respect the opinion that having sex for money is completely illegal in most states but what about stripping? Stripping is completely legal and paid for lap dances aren’t the only advancement allowed. Strippers are allowed to receive payment to have sexual encounters within the establishment and it is completely legal. Protection for working women should exist across the board, not just for the select few. An article in The Business Insider gives seven reasons on why prostitution should be legal in all fifty states of America. These reasons include: 1) It Would Reduce Violence Against Women. 2) Legalization Would Make Sex Workers Healthier. 3) Prostitution Is Arguably A Victimless Crime. 4) Legal Prostitution Can Be A Source Of Tax Revenue. 5) Legal ization Could Save Precious Law Enforcement Resources. 6) Legal Prostitutes Could Get Labor Rights. 7) Prostitution Isn t Going Away Anytime Soon. I personally would like to focus on just a few examples to better support the articles argument. With reason one â€Å"It Would Reduce Violence Against Women† is a simple and straight foreword example within itself. As of today women are the primary victims of assault upon regular encounters, but when a prostitute is involved it becomes slightly different. When aShow MoreRelatedShould Prostitution Be Legal? Essay1145 Words   |  5 PagesShould prostitution be legal? Prostitution has been around for decades. Since 1780 BC the legalization of prostitution has been a controversial topic. Prostitution is the act or practice of engaging in promiscuous sexual relations especially for money.† Prostitution. Merriam-Webster.com. Merriam-Webster, n.d. Web. 15 Dec. 2016. Many claim that is one of the oldest professions. If this is one of the oldest professions why is it still illegal? So many people have different opinions on the issueRead MoreShould Prostitution Be Legal1695 Words   |  7 Pagesthat prostitution will exist no matter what because men will always degrade women, and women, in turn, can do the same to men, even though these moral aspects are not connected with the legalization process, mostly depending on moral qualities of the society members, and not on a position on prostitution. Thus, the essay will try to prove why prostitution should not be legal with the help of analysis of the articles of the well-known scientists. While feminist theory represents prostitution as aRead MoreShould Prostitution Be Legal?1236 Words   |  5 Pagesmajority of people believe prostitution should stay illegal, claiming that the legalization of prostitution will only make the chances of getting an STD even higher, an increase in rape rates, and will also add to the growth of human trafficking. Although this could be the case, there have been many studies that tell a different story. Currently, Nevada has allowed prostitution in 11 of its counties with much success. There can be many benefits from the legalization of prostitution in the states. LegalizingRead MoreProstitution: It Should Be Legal 1431 Words   |  6 PagesAccording to the Merriam- Webster dictionary, prostitution is defined as â€Å"the work of a prostitute: the act of having sex in exchange for money† (cite). Underneath this definition is one that follows as, â€Å"the use of a skill or ability in a way that is not appropriate or respectableâ €  (cite). Prostitution is a pressing matter in the United States and, as one can assume after reading the second definition given, implicated negatively throughout society. Many view this topic in an undesirable mannerRead MoreShould Prostitution Be Legal? Essay1261 Words   |  6 PagesProstitution has existed in history since before most people can remember. In our time, prostitution is hotly debated as to whether it should be a professional working job, or whether it is immoral and oppressive to women. This debate has existed since the dawn of time, and there is still no clear answer. Society demands that police should stop certain illicit activities from happening in their neighborhoods, but should law enforcement be made to waste their time and effort to arrest those thatRead MoreShould Prostitution Be Legal?1157 Words   |  5 PagesLegalizing Prostitution in Brothels Throughout America When someone says prostitution, the first couple things that probably come to mind are grimy girls that have ruined their lives with drugs sitting on a couch cracked out with a man they just met. Prostitutes are looked at as whores who cannot sustain a real career so they are forced to sell their bodies for sex. The prostitution industry is essentially just like any other service industry. The worker charges his or her customer for a serviceRead MoreShould Prostitution Be Legal?1440 Words   |  6 PagesCanadian legal system stands prostitution. Prostitution by definition is the practice or occupation of engaging in sexual activity with someone for payment. Prostitution in our legal system can be dated back to the 18th century, this was the first Canadian statute to acknowledge prostitution. Prostitution in this time was handled by three legal approaches, regulation, prohibition and lastly rehabilitation. It is believed that because of these three legal approaches that is why prost itution is stillRead MoreShould Prostitution Be Legal?1057 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"A human body is a temple; we should love it and respect it.† How often have we come across those people who sell their bodies, so-called temples and have been termed as â€Å"prostitutes?† Prostitution can be defined as the profession of getting involved in sexual activity with someone and to get paid back in return. Sex and sex-related issues have always been the matter to be hidden, and the civilized people are considered to be not speaking about it at all. Despite the fact, none can escape it ourRead MoreProstitution Should Not Be Legal1753 Words   |  8 Pagesthe topic of prostitution, most of us will readily agree that it is wrong as it portrays a negative image on women. Where this agreement usually ends, however, it is whether or not it’s a negative outcome. Whereas some are convinced that prostitution should be legal, others maintain that it should stay illegal becau se of moral intuitions. I disagree that prostitution should be legalized because it’s a form of slavery. Here are many feminists would probably object that prostitution is an utterlyRead MoreShould Prostitution Be Legal?1371 Words   |  6 PagesKayla Beaty College Success Professor Jernigan 02/04/2015 Prositution in the U.S For my paper I chose the topic â€Å"Prostitution In the U.S† I picked this topic because I feel as if there’s a lot to discuss about the subject itself. Prostitution in my eyes, should be illegal in all parts of America. I feel as if the crime itself is degrading not only to women, but the families of those involved that choose to commit these acts. My personal opinion, going more into detail is that I grew up viewing

Ethical Healthcare Issues Free Essays

Running Head: ETHICAL HEALTHCARE Ethical Healthcare Issues Paper Wanda Douglas Health Law and Ethics/HCS 545 October 17, 2011 Nancy Moody Ethical Healthcare Issues Paper In today’s health care industry providing quality patient care and avoiding harm are the foundations of ethical practices. However, many health care professionals are not meeting the guidelines or expectations of the American College of Healthcare Executives (ACHE) or obeying the organizations code of ethics policies, especially with the use of electronic medical records (EMR). Many patients fear that their personal health information (PHI) will be disclosed by hackers or unauthorized users. We will write a custom essay sample on Ethical Healthcare Issues or any similar topic only for you Order Now According to Carel (2010) â€Å"ethical concerns shroud the proposal in skepticism, most notably privacy. At the most fundamental level, issues arise about the sheer number of people who will have ready access to the health information of a vast patient population, as well as about unauthorized access via hacking. †Ã‚  This paper will apply the four principles of ethics to EMR system. EMR History Pickerton (2005), â€Å"In the 1960s, a physician named Lawrence L. Weed first described the concept of computerized or medical records. Weed described a system to automate and recognize patient medical records to enhance their utilization and thereby lead to improved patient care† (para 1). The advantages of EMR system includes shared information integrated information, improvement of quality care, and adaptation of regulatory changes. Even though EMR systems have many advantages, EMR systems also have some disadvantages too. Some disadvantages of EMR systems are security, and confidential, which can raise ethical issues. In order to help identify and vercome ethical issues with EMR systems, health care professionals can use the four principles of ethics to help identify where ethical issues are compromised. The four principles of ethics are autonomy, beneficence, nonmaleficence, and justice. Autonomy According to Mercuri (2010) â€Å"autonomy means allowing individuals make their own choices and develop their own lives in the context of a pa rticular society and in dialogue with that society; negatively, autonomy means that one human person, precisely as a human person, does not have authority and should not have power over another human person† (para 2). Autonomy has an effect with ethics concerning EMR systems because health care organizations should have an EMR system that should maintain respect for patient autonomy. Respect for patient autonomy should have health care organizations to make decisions concerning user access of the records. Access of Records Before a health care organization implements an EMR system, they should have a security system in place, which includes â€Å"access control† component. Access control within an EMR system is controlled by distinct user roles and access levels, the enforcement of strong login passwords, severe user verification/authorization and user inactivity locks. Health care of professionals regardless of their level, each have specific permissions for accessing data. Even though the organization have the right security system in place to prevent unauthorized users from access patient records, autonomous patients will expect to have access to his or her records with ease. Access their record will ensure that their information is correct and safe. Beneficence According to Kennedy (2004) â€Å"beneficence is acting to prevent evil or harm, to protect and defend the rights of others to do or promote good† (p. 501). Beneficence has an effect with ethics when it comes to EMR systems because health care professionals can help to improve the health of individual patients by using patient records to help with medical research. EMR systems contain an enormous amount of raw data, which can innovate public health and biomedical research. This research will not only do good to help the health of individual patients, but also to the health of society (Mercuri, 2010). As a result, as new EMR systems are designed, patients should be given the ability to release information from their EMRs to researchers and scientists. Nonmaleficence Not only does beneficence have an effect with ethics concerning EMR systems, but also nonmaleficence. According to Taber’s Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary â€Å"The principle of not doing something that causes harm. Hippocrates felt this was the underpinning of all medical practice. He advised his students,  primum non nocere  (â€Å"first, do no harm†)† (â€Å"Nonmaleficence,† 2010). Nonmaleficence has an effect with ethics concerning EMR systems because it is the employee’s responsibilities to report any negligence or fraud of patient medical records. However, if an employee doesn’t report negligence or fraud it will cause harm to the organization and to the patient. Reporting negligence will make the organization aware of the problem and help them find a solution. Employees can help prevent negligence or fraud notifying management when a problem is discovered. Employees can also help prevent negligence or fraud by making sure that their system access information is secure. In addition, employees can also help prevent negligence or fraud by making sure that they are creating accurate records. If the employees follow these policies of EMR security systems, they will ensure that the patient medical records are secure and safe from harm. Justice Not only does nonmaleficence have an effect with ethics when it comes to EMR systems, but also justice. According to Mercuri (2010) â€Å"justice is commonly defined as fairness. With respect to health care, justice refers to society’s duty to provide its members with access to an adequate level of health care that fulfills basic needs† (para 5). Justice has an effect with ethics concerning EMR systems because EMRs are most helpful when the system is easy to use, fully integrated, and easily searchable. EMR systems have the potential to assist health care organizations by providing higher quality care to the users and to the patients. In addition, EMR systems also assist health care organizations by having a system that is more unbiased through advanced effectiveness. Conclusion Even though there are still some ethical issues with EMR systems, health care professionals are moving in the right direction by being more aware. Health care professional want to do the right thing by following the organizations code of ethics, but sometimes they are not always clear on how they should handle certain EMR systems situations properly. In order for health care professionals to handle certain EMR systems situations properly, they can use the ACHE as a reference. Using ACHE as a reference ensures that they are meeting ACHE standards. Health care professionals can also apply the four principles of ethics to determine a resolution. Applying the four principles of ethics ensures that they are following the proper protocols and guidelines and leaves considerable room for judgment in certain cases. Reference Carel, D. (2010, October). The Ethics of Electronic Health Records. Yale Journal of Medicine Law, VII (1), 8-9. Kennedy, W. (2004). Beneficence and autonomy in nursing: a moral dilemma. British Journal of Perioperative Nursing, 14(11), 500-506. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. Mercuri, J. (2010). The Ethics of Electronic Health Record. Retrieved from http://www. clinical correlations. org/? p=2211 Nonmaleficence. 2010. Taber’s Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary, 21st ed, Retrieved from EBSCO host. Pickerton, K. (2005). His tory of Electronic Medical Records. Retrieved from http://ezinearticles . com/? History-Of-Electronic-Medical-Recordsid=254240 How to cite Ethical Healthcare Issues, Papers

What is the make up requirement for the characters ‘Rama’ and ‘Ravana’ in a Kathakali performance free essay sample

‘The Ramayana’ is considered as one of the great Hindu (Indian) epics of the fourth century BC that uses the performance style of the traditional Indian dance drama—Kathakali. Kathakali (literally, ‘story play’) is a type of total theatre, which is described as dance-drama. It performs dramatized stories in the form of combining dance, acting and music. Actors never speak on stage, as the text is present by the onstage vocalists. Therefore their body movements, hand gestures and facial expressions are always important. With facial gestures, the actor must be able to manipulate their facial muscles in order to effectively portraying their role. Their face articulation is enhanced by the ornate and symbolized makeup. Thus, a company, who wishes to perform ‘The Ramayana’ in a Kathakali style should understand the makeup requirements as its uniqueness and symbolism ‘transforms the actors into a wide variety of idealized and archetypal character types’ . Hence, it is crucial to obtain research of this specific element of Kathakali. We will write a custom essay sample on What is the make up requirement for the characters ‘Rama’ and ‘Ravana’ in a Kathakali performance or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page ‘The Ramayana’ portrays a prince who sacrifices himself to defeat the evil in the world, and depicts the concept of ‘order vs. chaos’, where ‘order’ is promoted by god and ‘chaos’ is caused by demons. The two ideal representatives of god and demons in ‘The Ramayana’ are Rama and Ravana, which both are ‘unnatural’ characters. Yet, the complexity of the make up presented by Kathakali actors can allow audience to have a realistic touch of the unearthly characters. In the following, I will be focusing on Rama and Ravana’s makeup requirements. Kathakali make up, is peculiarly native to the Kerala (south west region of India) folk art. Once the actor put on the makeup that represents his character, they are no longer themselves, they have assumed the life of the character they are playing . Generally the makeup is highly exaggerated by using bright and bold colours and intentionally to change the normal proportions of the human face . A highly stylized make up is the primary aesthetics effect combining with vivid facial expressions provides audiences to identify the hero and demon immediately in the performance. The style of makeup differs according to the type of character. While other theatre practices might identify the two elements in terms of a character’s individual personality, Kathakali symbolizes role- types . Hence, before look at the requirements, it is necessary to first explore the role type. Generally, the Kathakali characters for the purpose of make up can be classified in to three role types in terms of their nature and virtues : Sattvika, Rajsika and Tamasika. Sattvika has a virtuous personality, all characters of God celestial beings and saints, for example, can be included. While Rajsika is the complete opposite of Sattvika, it is a class that evil and fierce characters join into. Lastly, Tamasika characters are usually involved in the terrific and destructive acts in the play. Costume and make-up are so appropriately divided among the above three types of character, it allows audiences easily explore and appreciate the nature of the role- types and the complicated theatrical pattern of Kathakali. ‘The Ramayana’, talks about the journey of Prince Rama to achieve greatness. Rama can be classified in the group of Sattvika. In the play, there are a lot of significant events that proves Rama is in the class of Sattvika. Even in the beginning of the play, when he met Sita and set her as his ideal wife. Sita’s father forces Rama to stringing a large bow that is as big as a mountain to prove his worthiness for marrying his daughter. He was able to do so under a large crowd watching. This not only allows him to marry Sita, but also he is publicly acclaimed as a hero. Moreover, Rama’s behavior certainly presents a noble personality. The best example will be when slysly Kaikeyi speak in the behalf of Dasaratha and said he has decided to crown Rama’s brother, Bharatha as the king (originally Rama will be crowned today), and command Rama to go away and dwell in the forest without a decent reason. Rama didn’t refused to do so and obey Kaikeyi, even when his teacher Vasishtha stop him, he answered ‘Forgive me. It is my duty to obey her also, since she derives her authority from my father, and he ahs given her his word. ’ This clearly reveals that his virtuous and godly personality. This role type is the most refined of all in the Kathakali repertory. They  are never permitted to speak or even make a sound on stage. It is also reflected in the dignified and balanced makeup, which let audiences to focuses attention on the actor’s eyes and total facial expression. The type of make up that Rama can be used in Kathakali is called Paccha as it is specifically for Sattvika and epic heroic characters. This type of make up is suitable for characters that are upright, moral and full of a calm inner poise . The Paccha make up first has a deep green base where green in Kathakali represents godliness, and could reflect the basic inner exquisiteness of Rama. There is a stylized mark of Vi  u on his forehead i. e. yellow base and markings of red and black, which can be shown in the below figure. Visnu is a minor Vedic god and is considered have had nine earthly incarnations, where Rama is one of them. Figure 1. Vi u mark The treatment for eye is essential. Eyebrows in painted in a black soft curving pattern and black is also used for underlining of the lower lids. Both of the exaggerated and stretched eye make up extends to the side of the face, near the temples. The shape of the thick eyeliner that frames the eyes is assume to be the shape of broad-blade sabre of a sweeping curve of a bow . Also, the white of the eye has to be reddened, the redden eyes is called crimson eyes. This is done because it stands in contrast to the colour scheme of the face. By making the crimson eyes, Paccha characters has to put in a few young seeds of cundapoou in their eyes. Then by rotating their eyes, the seed colour (brilliant red) will dissolved in his eyes. Pacca’s lips will paint in brilliant coral red. Instead of a wavy –like red lips, there is two circular attachments at both end of the mouth that look as if smiling. It is because the ‘these two sides circular patches is to get self- position and restraint to the character, which qualities are wanting in other role types. ’ Finally, in order to finish the make up, a cutti will be added to frame the entire face from ‘ear to ear’ . A cutti looks like multi-layers of white paper that each white paper is come out from the previous one. The purpose of a cutti is to change the normal structure of the actor’s face by widening the jawline and narrowing again at the chin. The below figure is the whole make up look for Rama, a Pacca character in the class of Sattvika, which concludes the above description. Figure 2. Rama’s make up Additional information about the role type Sattvika is that: a medium circular crown is usually worn. First it is to symbolize the high status of Rama, prince, and second to balances the thick and upturning shape of the black eyebrows and curve of the cutti. Figure 3: Rama’s makeup with crown On the other hand, Ravana can be classified into the role type, Rajsika. This type of role usually has a streak of nobility in their blood, and Ravana in this play is the ruler of Lanka. Ravana is an ambitious yet arrogant character. Although he is a bad spirit and demon, he has some redeeming qualities, which is exactly the trait of an Rajsika character. For instance, when before he thinking of creating chaos, he is confused that he will curse the moon for being unpredictable. However, his demon force of disorder has cloud his mind, and eventually creating pure chaos. Non-sensibly, he has also blames all of his problems on Sita, claiming that if she wasn’t that beautiful, he would never fallen in love and make this foolish mistake of kidnapping her. This can truly reveals he is weak to admit his faults. Moreover, in the battle of Ravana and Rama, Ravana has chosen to use his magic weapon, Maya, which created illusions and confused the enemy , which reflects his surreptitious and devil character quality. For the role type Rajsika, which Ravana is one of them, are distinctively treated with makeup, Katti. This is because Katti is especially suitable for demoniac characters whom standing against the hero of the play, where in this play Ravana is fighting against the hero, Rama. Compared with Paccha, the make up of Katti is more complicated. The term ‘Katti’ means the knife, as the shapes in the makeup are sharply bent daggers. The foundation colour of Katti is green indicating this type of character is too high born. While his evil and arrogance can be represent by the nose that painted in red. Then, two red board, flat- ended curves that is highly shaped and highlighted with white frame is rise up to the forehead, above eyebrows from the bridge of the nose. In addition, on the forehead, between the two red curves there are white lines across the forehead with an upturned capital ‘A’. Moreover, Then the red paint on the nose rises up to a stylized red moustache framed by white rice paste and black colour as a border. The curls of the moustache on either side of the face are over cheeks. The upturning point of the moustache is directly pointed to the eyes. The whole image is like a red patch, moustache, covering the upper jaw , which can be shown in the below figure. The astonishing combination of red and green can create high accomplishment as well as evil designs. Figure 4. The use of red on katti characters Thus the use of red on Katti characters can build up the demoniac nature and symbolized the devilish in the actions. The use of white has no a particular function, yet it can reinforce the effect of the colour red, and can exaggerate of the evil motives of an evil character. Also, the lips will be painted in red too, and there are in the same shape as Pacca’s lips, which on the side of the lips contain circular red patches. In order to add fierceness to the terrifying appearance of Ravana, two long protruding canine teeth are perched on the side of the mouth . Comparing this to a Pacca character, although both characters are using the same color tone for their makeup: green base with red accents. It is noticeable that the makeup of eyes has given Katti a total extension to the evil face. It emphasizes and exaggerates the villain expressions. First, Katti have used a very thick under eye line to trace his eyes. Then, the upper eyebrows paint will start from the inner edge of the outer crescent of the white rice-paste, a line curls up round the nose and comes to rest in the cavity of the eyebrow. And that black paint will be extend to the area of red patterns on the forehead, then the two colours, black and red will create a contacting feeling and further exaggerate the red patterns. The eyes are extended on the both side towards the base of the nose and the temples, and strengthen the ignoble being of Ravana, a Katti character. This can be shown in the above figure. Figure 5. The eye make up of Katti (Kalamandalam Shanmukhan as Ravana) The final feature to represent Katti’s evil nature in the make up, are the two protrusions—white knobs (called chuttipuvvus) on the face which they are stick to the nose-tips and middle of the forehead. The sizes of the white bulbs vary for each Katti character in terms of the cruelty of him. The more wicked the character is, the larger is the size of these knobs. For Ravana, both white bulbs are in the same size, and it should be using the largest size due to the fact that he keeps creating serious and foolish chaos in the play. Instead of a plain nose and patterns of a virtuous character with the help of the nature of colour, these two white bulbs can further symbolize overbearingness of Ravana. Similar with Rama, a Pacca character, Ravana wears a cutti and the eyes have to redden as well. And the below diagram can conclude the make up of Ravana that wears a Katti make up. Figure 6. The completed makeup of Ravana All the makeup materials that are used in Kathakali are naturally made. The paint made by colour stones. It is first powered and filtered before sulphur and a greasy substance usually coconut oil are mixed to make a paste . While the paint of cutti is mixed by rice-paste and lime, and when it dries it will form a solid and hard shape. On every night’s performance, the actors will have their makeup done in an area called ‘green room’. The completed makeup for both of the characters, Rama and Ravana will usually take two to four hours. However, the makeup artist does not do the whole makeup process. The actors have to first begin their makeup by outlining the major patterns on their face. Then, he will go to a makeup artist, which he will apply the appropriate rice-paste patterns layer by layer . Ravana, for example, the makeup artist will need to trace the pattern of the moustache. After that the actor will need to colour the patterns by themselves. As Kathakali is a traditional India type of art, and all theatre company will generally follow the traditional, especially on the makeup, costumes, headdress. Thus, all theatre company would do same makeup for Rama and Ravana. Concluding, actors who want to portray the role of Rama and Ravana of The Ramayana in the Kathakali style must aware of their own makeup style. Although the realism in the makeup is temporal, the true state of the character mind is portrayed through it. Also, due to the fact that a make up is the first aesthetic element that audiences observe from their character, which they are able to distinguish the two completely different role types— Sattvika and Rajsika. In other extreme words, this element can control and alter the interpretation of audiences towards the characters, as well as the facial movements that the actor creates for his own character. Bibliography (Critique of Sources) Literary Sources 1. Gayanacharya Avinash C. Pandeya â€Å"The Art of Kathakali† Publisher: Kitabistan, Allahabad (India), 1961 â€Å"The Art of Kathakali† is first published in 1943, and the version that I read is the second edition, which is published in 1961. The author has revised and enlarged the information, in order to add a new set of illustrations to facilitate a further and deeper understanding of the art: Kathakali. The book has included a range of facts and analysis on Kathakali theatre: origin, techniques, costumes, makeup and gestural codes. During the process of completing the work, Pandeya has studied the basic trait of people of Kerala was studied in order to reach to the deep roots of kathakali. Other than this fresh experience, he has a close contact with the scholars on kathakali for few years. At the same time, he has got guidance and assistance with Guru Gopi Nath, who has started a dance school at Madras. Despite the lack of bibliography, the author acknowledges a variety of sources that he used and adopted in his research at the end of the book, i. e. mainly literary sources (books and contemporary writings). I then researched his sources, and it appears that they are unbiased information. This book has provided detailed information on the every aspect of the Kathakali theatre. I especially found the makeup part useful. However at the same time, it is difficult to read, as there are a lot of Indian terms, which I have to take time to understand. 2. Phillip B. Zarrilli â€Å"The Kathakali Complex: Actor, Performance, Structure† Publisher: Abhinav publications (India), 1984 â€Å"The Kathakali Complex: Actor, Performance, Structure† is another collection of information on Indian Dance drama, Kathakali. It has also focused on different aspect of the theatrical style. However the author, Pillip Zarrilli, has used much more simply terms to explain the elements. Therefore it is suitbale for individual and dramaturge that with little knowledge at the beginning, as the book begins with narrative account of three kathakali performances, then detailed account of the actor in performance. Phillip Zarrilli is notable British practitioner of the Indian material arts, including Kathakali. He made repeated trips to India to engage in advanced training. Also, has worked with Indian choreographers on several international projects. With that much experiences and positions in Kathakali (performer, director, participant, dramatrug), along with his surveys on expert, he has conducted a very reasonable and logical research. Hence, I think this book is reliable. I especially found the chapters ‘The Kathakali actor in performance’ and ‘an overview of the creation of the Kathakali actor’ interesting and useful for my RI. The most unique and useful part of this book is that it has provided a list of figures and diagrams with annotation at the beginning of the book, which makes readers very conveniently can able to search for information. 3. Reginald Massy â€Å"India’s Dance† Publisher: Abhinav Publications (India), 2004 Reginald Massey has written on the culture, music, religious and dance of India in different papers, for example, The times, The Guardian and The Dancing Times of London. His book, â€Å"India’s Dance† consists different type of Indian dance, and one of them is kathakali. Although the introduction of kathakali is less, it is useful and concise. The use of this book in my RI is little, yet it is important, as I have used this book as checking/ supporting my other sources. This can ensure my sources are correct and they are presenting facts instead of opinions. 4. Prof. Stephen Hagin â€Å"Reading Guide: The Ramayana† Publisher: Kennesaw State University, 2008 Although â€Å"Reading Guilde: The Ramayana† is not directly linked into my Research Investigation, it is a reading guide that provides a very detailed background of the play, Ramayana. Also, it has included notes on each chapter and brief summaries of the themes. I think that the analysis this guild is valid as it was written by Prof. Stephen Hagin. He is an assistant Professor of English at Kennesaw State University, and has wrote, edited and designed three college English textbooks before. However, there is no bibliography with his work, which it is hard to determinant the reliability of this study. Online Sources 5. Video by Kerala Tourism of the process of Kathakali Make-up http://www. youtube. com/watch? v=iu5pGb_fpE8feature=player_embeddedLast visited: April 1st, 2013 This video is posted on the youtube. com. It is the first sources that gave me a full image about how Kathakali makeup look like, as well as the process of makeup. Without narration or caption, the whole video is simple just showing the process of Kathakali makeup. Also, this video did not specify the name of the performance and characters. Therefore, a further investigation of the Kathakali makeup features and the role types is needed. Although this video was found on the Internet, and it is told that we have to cautious about Internet sources, I think that this is a reliable and valid resource. It is because it is posted by the Kerala Tourism and meaning that it is a government video to attract visitors. Hence, the authority power of the government is strong enough to trust. 6. Jeanette Issa, Introduction of Kathakali (July 2012) http://postcolonialstudies.  emory. edu/kathakali/ Last visit: March 20th, 2013 This website provide me a general introduction to Kathakali as well as some brief analysis about other theatrical elements including makeup. The Internet may not be the most reliable platform, yet this site has provided me multiple hyperlinks to other websites, giving other information for example the history and some audio clips. I thi nk this is a credible source, as it has referenced different type of sources that the author has used, for example websites and literary works (books and articles). At the same time, the last update of this website is July 2012, which is the latest written sources among all of my sources. Therefore I think the author can able to provide a more update to date information about Kathakali. 7. Rajeeb, Rodolfo, Shiv, Kathakali- Make up and Costume (2000) http://library. thinkquest. org/C006203/cgi-bin/stories. cgi? article=mc §ion=dance/classical/kathakaliframe=parent Last Visit: March 21st, 2013 This website is specifically talk about the makeup and costume about Kathakali theatre, and it is analyzed according to the role types. Although it is not very detailed, the words and terms are easy to read and understand. Therefore this website instead of helping my Research Investigation, it is to allow me have a background information about the role types in Kathakali. Although this website is created by three students all from secondary school, they are supervised by their teachers, which two of them are Indian and one of them is Amercian, form The Shri Ram School. However, as the students did not citied their resources, I doubt the reliability of this website.

Virtual Reality - What it is and How it Works Essays - Free Essays

Virtual Reality - What it is and How it Works Essays - Free Essays Virtual Reality - What it is and How it Works Imagine being able to point into the sky and fly. Or perhaps walk through space and connect molecules together. These are some of the dreams that have come with the invention of virtual reality. With the introduction of computers, numerous applications have been enhanced or created. The newest technology that is being tapped is that of artificial reality, or "virtual reality" (VR). When Morton Heilig first got a patent for his "Sensorama Simulator" in 1962, he had no idea that 30 years later people would still be trying to simulate reality and that they would be doing it so effectively. Jaron Lanier first coined the phrase "virtual reality" around 1989, and it has stuck ever since. Unfortunately, this catchy name has caused people to dream up incredible uses for this technology including using it as a sort of drug. This became evident when, among other people, Timothy Leary became interested in VR. This has also worried some of the researchers who are trying to create very real applications for medical, space, physical, chemical, and entertainment uses among other things. In order to create this alternate reality, however, you need to find ways to create the illusion of reality with a piece of machinery known as the computer. This is done with several computer-user interfaces used to simulate the senses. Among these, are stereoscopic glasses to make the simulated world look real, a 3D auditory display to give depth to sound, sensor lined gloves to simulate tactile feedback, and head-trackers to follow the orientation of the head. Since the technology is fairly young, these interfaces have not been perfected, making for a somewhat cartoonish simulated reality. Stereoscopic vision is probably the most important feature of VR because in real life, people rely mainly on vision to get places and do things. The eyes are approximately 6.5 centimeters apart, and allow you to have a full-colour, three-dimensional view of the world. Stereoscopy, in itself, is not a very new idea, but the new twist is trying to generate completely new images in real- time. In 1933, Sir Charles Wheatstone invented the first stereoscope with the same basic principle being used in today's head-mounted displays. Presenting different views to each eye gives the illusion of three dimensions. The glasses that are used today work by using what is called an "electronic shutter". The lenses of the glasses interleave h) 0*0*0* the left-eye and right-eye views every thirtieth of a second. The shutters selectively block and admit views of the screen in sync with the interleaving, allowing the proper views to go into each eye. The problem with this method though is that you have to wear special glasses. Most VR researchers use complicated headsets, but it is possible to create stereoscopic three-dimensional images without them. One such way is through the use of lenticular lenses. These lenses, known since Herman Ives experimented with them in 1930, allow one to take two images, cut them into thin vertical slices and interleave them in precise order (also called multiplexing) and put cylinder shaped lenses in front of them so that when you look into them directly, the images correspond with each eye. This illusion of depth is based on what is called binocular parallax. Another problem that is solved is that which occurs when one turns their head. Nearby objects appear to move more than distant objects. This is called motion parallax. Lenticular screens can show users the proper stereo images when moving their heads well when a head- motion sensor is used to adjust the effect. Sound is another important part of daily life, and thus must be simulated well in order to create artificial reality. Many scientists including Dr. Elizabeth Wenzel, a researcher at NASA, are convinced the 3D audio will be useful for scientific visualization and space applications in the ways the 3D video is somewhat limited. She has come up with an interesting use for virtual sound that would allow an astronaut to hear the state of their oxygen, or have an acoustical beacon that directs one to a trouble spot on a satellite. The "Convolvotron" is one such device that simulates the location of up to four audio channels with a sort of imaginary sphere surrounding the listener. This device takes into account that each person has specialized auditory signal processing, and personalizes what each person hears. Using a position sensor from Polhemus, another VR research company, it is possible to move the position of sound by simply moving a small cube around in your hand. The key to the Convolvotron is something called the "Head- Related Transfer Function

How to Celebrate Valentines Day as a Homeschool Family

How to Celebrate Valentines Day as a Homeschool Family For kids in a traditional school setting, Valentines Day may conjure up ideas of exchanging Valentines and feasting on cupcakes with classmates. How can you make Valentines Day special as a homeschooling family? Host a Valentine Party A child making the  transition from public school to homeschool  may be accustomed to a traditional classroom party. Consider hosting your own Valentines Day party for your family and friends or homeschool support group. One of the obstacles that you may experience with a homeschool Valentine party is getting a list of participants names. In a classroom setting, a list of names if usually sent home to make it easy for kids to address a Valentine card to each of their classmates. Also, unlike in a classroom, all the kids in a homeschool support group may not know one another. There are a couple of easy ways to overcome these obstacles. First, you may want to ask all the party-goers to bring blank Valentine cards to exchange. They can fill in the names as part of the activities after they arrived. For larger homeschool group parties, its helpful to ask the children to fill out their Valentines at home, writing â€Å"my friend† in the â€Å"to† field.   Ask each child to bring a shoebox or a paper sack to decorate. Choose one or the other so that all the kids have something similar in which to collect their Valentines. Provide markers; stamps and ink; crayons; and stickers for the kids to use in decorating their boxes.  After decorating their bags or boxes, have the children deliver their Valentines to one another. You will also want to provide snacks or ask each family to bring something to share. Group games are fun to plan, too, since those are difficult to play at home with siblings.   Have a Valentine-themed School Day Take a break from your regular schoolwork for the day.  Instead, complete Valentine’s Day printables,  writing prompts, and writing activities. Read Valentine’s Day or love-themed picture books. Learn how to dry flowers  or make Valentine’s Day crafts. Get hands-on with math and kitchen chemistry by baking cookies or cupcakes. If you have an older student, give him home ec credit for preparing a complete Valentine-themed meal. Serve Others A fantastic way to celebrate Valentine’s Day as a homeschool family is to spend time serving others. Look for opportunities to volunteer in your community or consider the following: Take Valentine  cards and treats to a nursing home,  police station, or fire departmentRake leaves for a neighborDeliver a homemade meal or Valentine treats to a neighborTake treats to the librarians who probably know your family by nameDo random acts of kindness, such as paying for the meal of the car behind you in the drive-through lineServe your own family by doing household chores that someone else usually does such as washing the dishes for Mom or taking out the trash for Dad Place Hearts on Each Other’s Bedroom  Doors Place a heart on each family member’s bedroom door listing a reason why you love them. You might mention attributes such as: You are kind.You have a beautiful smile.You’re great at drawing.You are a wonderful sister.I love your sense of humor.You give fantastic hugs. Do this every day for the month of February, the week of Valentine’s Day, or surprise your family with an explosion of hearts on their doors when they wake up on Valentine’s Day. Enjoy a Special Breakfast Like other families, it’s not uncommon for  homeschooling families  to find themselves going in different directions each day.  One or both parents may work outside the home, and the kids may have a homeschool co-op or outside classes to attend. Enjoy a special Valentine’s Day breakfast before everyone goes their separate ways. Make heart-shaped pancakes or have strawberries and chocolate crepes.   End the Day Together If you dont have time for breakfast, end the day with some special family time. Order pizza and snuggle up for a family movie night complete with popcorn and boxes of movie candy. Before the movie, encourage each family member to tell the others one thing they love about each of them.   Your homeschool familys Valentines day celebration doesnt have to be elaborate to be a meaningful, memory-making event.

Siaffing for a telecommunting job Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Siaffing for a telecommunting job - Essay Example The main reason for recommending this method is that conducting interviews with the former incumbent, and their immediate supervisor, will help capture the important details related to the job descriptions and specifications. In addition, interviews with specialists in the public relations sector will be crucial to help capture any details that the outgoing office holder and the supervisors might fail to indicate. Furthermore, interviews with specialists in telecommuting will also be crucial to help provide information that the company will use to realign this new role. It is important to note that, this method would still be applicable in analyzing a job in the traditional office environment since the same details are crucial apart from those related to telecommuting. In effect, the same analysis method will be applicable apart from conducting interviews with a telecommuting specialist. The best procedure to use in recruiting and hiring a telecommuter for the company will be through hiring of a telecommuter from within the company. In this regard, this method is the most appropriate since the company will avoid the problems related to insufficient socialization. In addition, it is important to ensure that the telecommuter hired is trustworthy, of which it will be a challenge to prove trustworthy once hiring was from outside the company. Beyond the value congruence and appropriate skills for the job, and trustworthiness, it is important to investigate other important characteristics important for telecommuting. In this regard, these characteristics incorporate the capability to work independent of express supervision, self-motivation, confidence, and an individual with crucial managerial skills (Schilling, 1999). In is only through hiring within the company that this is achievable. On the other hand, if the job was not of a telecommuting nature, this procedure of hi ring and recruitment could be applicable since the same features are required in a

The Impact of the Dred Scott Decision on Slavery in U.S. Territories Research Paper

The Impact of the Dred Scott Decision on Slavery in U.S. Territories - Research Paper Example The North and the South had an opposing opinion of slavery. Hostilities and violence were the only way to resolve the problem.i Dred Scott was not able to witness the abolition of slavery. Even so, his determined and fearless struggle for freedom greatly contributed to the ultimate end of slavery. The consequences of the Dred Scott case were experienced by all U.S. territories. For northern territories the decision was very much troubling because it suggested that a legal mechanism by which a territory could put a stop to the establishment of a system of slavery was absent. For southern territories the decision was a stroke of luck that established the legality of slavery and apparently resolved all issues about the legitimacy of the expansion of slavery.ii Only a small number of trials had ever stimulated such a scale of public interest. Due to the Dred Scott decision, the principles of Popular Sovereignty—a doctrine which stipulated that a territory could make a vote whether or not slavery would be lawful-- and Missouri Compromise—an Act that limited slavery to territories located south of the 39th parallel-- became hence null and void.iii Slavery was given the right to expand to all U.S. territories. ... ssible followers to reconstruct society according to its will, and neither the Congress nor the President was primed to provide a strong support for the Court’s decision. However, many thought that legislative branch possessed the authority to restrict the establishment of the system of slavery into other U.S. territories, but the resolution of the Court had definitely blurred the political system. The nation was yet to understand the consequences of the Dred Scott resolution when the elections and campaigns carried out all over the nation in 1858 created a setting for political dialogue on the issue of slavery. This dialogue was most remarkable in the sequence of debates performed in Illinois where contender Abraham Lincoln and Senator Stephen Douglas talked about the major concerns at the time. Douglas, as one of the key supporters of the principle of popular sovereignty, had to take advantage of the debates to justify how this principle could remain existent as regards to t he Dred Scott decision. On the other hand, for Lincoln, who was a somewhat obscure political personality, the media exposure of these debates raised him as a talented orator on behalf of those who aspired to prevent the expansion of slavery into other U.S. territories.iv Although Douglas would in the end achieve another term as senator, it was Lincoln who gained the highest achievement from the debates, for his arguments became very popular and his reputation more well-known. Lincoln, two years later, would run as a presidential candidate. As Douglas and Lincoln discussed the issues of the time, their struggles echoed the nation’s disposition—a society that remained enthusiastic to talk about diplomatically the political issues the influenced national affairs.v Northern and Southern

Use Of Symbolism In The Catcher In The Rye and The Great Gatsby Essay

Use Of Symbolism In â€Å"The Catcher In The Rye† and â€Å"The Great Gatsby† There are many writers like James Joyce, Patrick Kananach and Thomas Moore who use symbolism to convey and support indirect meaning in their writings. J.D. Salinger and F. Scott Fitzgerald both use symbolism in similar ways. In both â€Å"The Catcher In The Rye† and â€Å"The Great Gatsby†, the authors used symbolism to convey emotions and reality.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In â€Å"The Catcher In The Rye†, J.D. Salinger uses Holden’s red hunting cap, the exhibits at the Museum of Natural History and â€Å"kings in the back row† as symbols whose meanings help tell the story. Holden’s red hunting hat stands for Holden’s disapproval of adult society and phonies. Although, Holden and his hat are out of place in New York, he loves this hat because it demonstrates his difference and independence from other kids his age. He becomes more and more attached to his hat because he feels like a catcher in the rye when he wears the hat. Holden cannot let go of his hat, like he cannot let go of his childhood. The Museum of Natural History is used to signify Holden’s fear of change. Holden enjoys looking at the mummies and the exhibits at the museum because they never change and are frozen in time. Holden realizes that he changes every time he goes back and sees the exhibits, but the exhibits do not change. He wishes that his childhood world would last forever like his exhibits. Salinger also uses the setting of New York City as a symbol. Although H...

Communication Management Challenges in Construction Project Execution

Go Up to Table of Contents| | Go To Chapter 2 (Organizing for Project Management)| The Owners' Perspective Introduction The Project Life Cycle Major Types of Construction Selection of Professional Services Construction Contractors Financing of Constructed Facilities Legal and Regulatory Requirements The Changing Environment of the Construction Industry   Ã‚  Ã‚   The Role of Project Managers References Footnotes| | | 1. The Owners' Perspective 1. 1 Introduction Like the five blind men encountering different parts of an elephant, each of the numerous participants in the process of planning, designing, financing, constructing and operating physical facilities has a different perspective on project management for construction. Specialized knowledge can be very beneficial, particularly in large and complicated projects, since experts in various specialties can provide valuable services. However, it is advantageous to understand how the different parts of the process fit together. Waste, excessive cost and delays can result from poor coordination and communication among specialists. It is particularly in the interest of owners to insure that such problems do not occur. And it behooves all participants in the process to heed the interests of owners because, in the end, it is the owners who provide the resources and call the shots. By adopting the viewpoint of the owners, we can focus our attention on the complete process of project management for constructed facilities rather than the historical roles of various specialists such as planners, architects, engineering designers, constructors, fabricators, material suppliers, financial analysts and others. To be sure, each specialty has made important advances in developing new techniques and tools for efficient implementation of construction projects. However, it is through the understanding of the entire process of project management that these specialists can respond more effectively to the owner's desires for their services, in marketing their specialties, and in improving the productivity and quality of their work. The introduction of innovative and more effective project management for construction is not an academic exercise. As reported by the â€Å"Construction Industry Cost Effectiveness Project† of the Business Roundtable: [1] By common consensus and every available measure, the United States no longer gets it's money's worth in construction, the nation's largest industry †¦ The creeping erosion of construction efficiency and productivity is bad news for the entire U. S. economy. Construction is a particularly seminal industry. The price of every factory, office building, hotel or power plant that is built affects the price that must be charged for the goods or services produced in it or by it. And that effect generally persists for decades †¦ Too much of the industry remains tethered to the past, partly by inertia and partly by historic divisions†¦ Improvement of project management not only can aid the construction industry, but may also be the engine for the national and world economy. However, if we are to make meaningful improvements, we must first understand the construction industry, its operating environment and the institutional constraints affecting its activities as well as the nature of project management. Back to top 1. 2 The Project Life Cycle The acquisition of a constructed facility usually represents a major capital investment, whether its owner happens to be an individual, a private corporation or a public agency. Since the commitment of resources for such an investment is motivated by market demands or perceived needs, the facility is expected to satisfy certain objectives within the constraints specified by the owner and relevant regulations. With the exception of the speculative housing market, where the residential units may be sold as built by the real estate developer, most constructed facilities are custom made in consultation with the owners. A real estate developer may be regarded as the sponsor of building projects, as much as a government agency may be the sponsor of a public project and turns it over to another government unit upon its completion. From the viewpoint of project management, the terms â€Å"owner† and â€Å"sponsor† are synonymous because both have the ultimate authority to make all important decisions. Since an owner is essentially acquiring a facility on a promise in some form of agreement, it will be wise for any owner to have a clear understanding of the acquisition process in order to maintain firm control of the quality, timeliness and cost of the completed facility. From the perspective of an owner, the project life cycle for a constructed facility may be illustrated schematically in Figure 1-1. Essentially, a project is conceived to meet market demands or needs in a timely fashion. Various possibilities may be considered in the conceptual planning stage, and the technological and economic feasibility of each alternative will be assessed and compared in order to select the best possible project. The financing schemes for the proposed alternatives must also be examined, and the project will be programmed with respect to the timing for its completion and for available cash flows. After the scope of the project is clearly defined, detailed engineering design will provide the blueprint for construction, and the definitive cost estimate will serve as the baseline for cost control. In the procurement and construction stage, the delivery of materials and the erection of the project on site must be carefully planned and controlled. After the construction is completed, there is usually a brief period of start-up or shake-down of the constructed facility when it is first occupied. Finally, the management of the facility is turned over to the owner for full occupancy until the facility lives out its useful life and is designated for demolition or conversion. Figure 1-1:   The Project Life Cycle of a Constructed Facility Of course, the stages of development in Figure 1-1 may not be strictly sequential. Some of the stages require iteration, and others may be carried out in parallel or with overlapping time frames, depending on the nature, size and urgency of the project. Furthermore, an owner may have in-house capacities to handle the work in every stage of the entire process, or it may seek professional advice and services for the work in all stages. Understandably, most owners choose to handle some of the work in-house and to contract outside professional services for other components of the work as needed. By examining the project life cycle from an owner's perspective we can focus on the proper roles of various activities and participants in all stages regardless of the contractual arrangements for different types of work. In the United States, for example, the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers has in-house capabilities to deal with planning, budgeting, design, construction and operation of waterway and flood control structures. Other public agencies, such as state transportation departments, are also deeply involved in all phases of a construction project. In the private sector, many large firms such as DuPont, Exxon, and IBM are adequately staffed to carry out most activities for plant expansion. All these owners, both public and private, use outside agents to a greater or lesser degree when it becomes more advantageous to do so. The project life cycle may be viewed as a process through which a project is implemented from cradle to grave. This process is often very complex; however, it can be decomposed into several stages as indicated by the general outline in Figure 1-1. The solutions at various stages are then integrated to obtain the final outcome. Although each stage requires different expertise, it usually includes both technical and managerial activities in the knowledge domain of the specialist. The owner may choose to decompose the entire process into more or less stages based on the size and nature of the project, and thus obtain the most efficient result in implementation. Very often, the owner retains direct control of work in the planning and programming stages, but increasingly outside planners and financial experts are used as consultants because of the complexities of projects. Since operation and maintenance of a facility will go on long after the completion and acceptance of a project, it is usually treated as a separate problem except in the consideration of the life cycle cost of a facility. All stages from conceptual planning and feasibility studies to the acceptance of a facility for occupancy may be broadly lumped together and referred to as the Design/Construct process, while the procurement and construction alone are traditionally regarded as the province of the construction industry. Owners must recognize that there is no single best approach in organizing project management throughout a project's life cycle. All organizational approaches have advantages and disadvantages, depending on the knowledge of the owner in construction management as well as the type, size and location of the project. It is important for the owner to be aware of the approach which is most appropriate and beneficial for a particular project. In making choices, owners should be concerned with the life cycle costs of constructed facilities rather than simply the initial construction costs. Saving small amounts of money during construction may not be worthwhile if the result is much larger operating costs or not meeting the functional requirements for the new facility satisfactorily. Thus, owners must be very concerned with the quality of the finished product as well as the cost of construction itself. Since facility operation and maintenance is a part of the project life cycle, the owners' expectation to satisfy investment objectives during the project life cycle will require consideration of the cost of operation and maintenance. Therefore, the facility's operating management should also be considered as early as possible, just as the construction process should be kept in mind at the early stages of planning and programming. Back to top 1. 3 Major Types of Construction Since most owners are generally interested in acquiring only a specific type of constructed facility, they should be aware of the common industrial practices for the type of construction pertinent to them. Likewise, the construction industry is a conglomeration of quite diverse segments and products. Some owners may procure a constructed facility only once in a long while and tend to look for short term advantages. However, many owners require periodic acquisition of new facilities and/or rehabilitation of existing facilities. It is to their advantage to keep the construction industry healthy and productive. Collectively, the owners have more power to influence the construction industry than they realize because, by their individual actions, they can provide incentives or disincentives for innovation, efficiency and quality in construction. It is to the interest of all parties that the owners take an active interest in the construction and exercise beneficial influence on the performance of the industry. In planning for various types of construction, the methods of procuring professional services, awarding construction contracts, and financing the constructed facility can be quite different. For the purpose of discussion, the broad spectrum of constructed facilities may be classified into four major categories, each with its own characteristics. Residential Housing Construction Residential housing construction includes single-family houses, multi-family dwellings, and high-rise apartments. During the development and construction of such projects, the developers or sponsors who are familiar with the construction industry usually serve as surrogate owners and take charge, making necessary contractual agreements for design and construction, and arranging the financing and sale of the completed structures. Residential housing designs are usually performed by architects and engineers, and the construction executed by builders who hire subcontractors for the structural, mechanical, electrical and other specialty work. An exception to this pattern is for single-family houses which may be designed by the builders as well. The residential housing market is heavily affected by general economic conditions, tax laws, and the monetary and fiscal policies of the government. Often, a slight increase in total demand will cause a substantial investment in construction, since many housing projects can be started at different locations by different individuals and developers at the same time. Because of the relative ease of entry, at least at the lower end of the market, many new builders are attracted to the residential housing construction. Hence, this market is highly competitive, with potentially high risks as well as high rewards. Figure 1-2:   Residential Housing Construction (courtesy of Caterpillar, Inc. ) Institutional and Commercial Building Construction Institutional and commercial building construction encompasses a great variety of project types and sizes, such as schools and universities, medical clinics and hospitals, recreational facilities and sports stadiums, retail chain stores and large shopping centers, warehouses and light manufacturing plants, and skyscrapers for offices and hotels. The owners of such buildings may or may not be familiar with construction industry practices, but they usually are able to select competent professional consultants and arrange the financing of the constructed facilities themselves. Specialty architects and engineers are often engaged for designing a specific type of building, while the builders or general contractors undertaking such projects may also be specialized in only that type of building. Because of the higher costs and greater sophistication of institutional and commercial buildings in comparison with residential housing, this market segment is shared by fewer competitors. Since the construction of some of these buildings is a long process which once started will take some time to proceed until completion, the demand is less sensitive to general economic conditions than that for speculative housing. Consequently, the owners may confront an oligopoly of general contractors who compete in the same market. In an oligopoly situation, only a limited number of competitors exist, and a firm's price for services may be based in part on its competitive strategies in the local market. Figure 1-3:   Construction of the PPG Building in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (courtesy of PPG Industries, Inc. Specialized Industrial Construction Specialized industrial construction usually involves very large scale projects with a high degree of technological complexity, such as oil refineries, steel mills, chemical processing plants and coal-fired or nuclear power plants. The owners usually are deeply involved in the development of a project, and prefer to work with designers-bu ilders such that the total time for the completion of the project can be shortened. They also want to pick a team of designers and builders with whom the owner has developed good working relations over the years. Although the initiation of such projects is also affected by the state of the economy, long range demand forecasting is the most important factor since such projects are capital intensive and require considerable amount of planning and construction time. Governmental regulation such as the rulings of the Environmental Protection Agency and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission in the United States can also profoundly influence decisions on these projects. Figure 1-4:   Construction of a Benzene Plant in Lima, Ohio (courtesy of Manitowoc Company, Inc. ) Infrastructure and Heavy Construction Infrastructure and heavy construction includes projects such as highways, mass transit systems, tunnels, bridges, pipelines, drainage systems and sewage treatment plants. Most of these projects are publicly owned and therefore financed either through bonds or taxes. This category of construction is characterized by a high degree of mechanization, which has gradually replaced some labor intensive operations. The engineers and builders engaged in infrastructure construction are usually highly specialized since each segment of the market requires different types of skills. However, demands for different segments of infrastructure and heavy construction may shift with saturation in some segments. For example, as the available highway construction projects are declining, some heavy construction contractors quickly move their work force and equipment into the field of mining where jobs are available. Figure 1-5:   Construction of the Dame Point Bridge in Jacksonville, Florida (courtesy of Mary Lou Maher) Back to top 1. 4 Selection of Professional Services When an owner decides to seek professional services for the design and construction of a facility, he is confronted with a broad variety of choices. The type of services selected depends to a large degree on the type of construction and the experience of the owner in dealing with various professionals in the previous projects undertaken by the firm. Generally, several common types of professional services may be engaged either separately or in some combination by the owners. Financial Planning Consultants At the early stage of strategic planning for a capital project, an owner often seeks the services of financial planning consultants such as certified public accounting (CPA) firms to evaluate the economic and financial feasibility of the constructed facility, particularly with respect to arious provisions of federal, state and local tax laws which may affect the investment decision. Investment banks may also be consulted on various options for financing the facility in order to analyze their long-term effects on the financial health of the owner organization. Architectural and Engineering Firms Traditionally, the owner engages a n architectural and engineering (A/E) firm or consortium as technical consultant in developing a preliminary design. After the engineering design and financing arrangements for the project are completed, the owner will enter into a construction contract with a general contractor either through competitive bidding or negotiation. The general contractor will act as a constructor and/or a coordinator of a large number of subcontractors who perform various specialties for the completion of the project. The A/E firm completes the design and may also provide on site quality inspection during construction. Thus, the A/E firm acts as the prime professional on behalf of the owner and supervises the construction to insure satisfactory results. This practice is most common in building construction. In the past two decades, this traditional approach has become less popular for a number of reasons, particularly for large scale projects. The A/E firms, which are engaged by the owner as the prime professionals for design and inspection, have become more isolated from the construction process. This has occurred because of pressures to reduce fees to A/E firms, the threat of litigation regarding construction defects, and lack of knowledge of new construction techniques on the part of architect and engineering professionals. Instead of preparing a construction plan along with the design, many A/E firms are no longer responsible for the details of construction nor do they provide periodic field inspection in many cases. As a matter of fact, such firms will place a prominent disclaimer of responsibilities on any shop drawings they may check, and they will often regard their representatives in the field as observers instead of inspectors. Thus, the A/E firm and the general contractor on a project often become antagonists who are looking after their own competing interests. As a result, even the constructibility of some engineering designs may become an issue of contention. To carry this protective attitude to the extreme, the specifications prepared by an A/E firm for the general contractor often protects the interest of the A/E firm at the expense of the interests of the owner and the contractor. In order to reduce the cost of construction, some owners introduce value engineering, which seeks to reduce the cost of construction by soliciting a second design that might cost less than the original design produced by the A/E firm. In practice, the second design is submitted by the contractor after receiving a construction contract at a stipulated sum, and the saving in cost resulting from the redesign is shared by the contractor and the owner. The contractor is able to absorb the cost of redesign from the profit in construction or to reduce the construction cost as a result of the re-design. If the owner had been willing to pay a higher fee to the A/E firm or to better direct the design process, the A/E firm might have produced an improved design which would cost less in the first place. Regardless of the merit of value engineering, this practice has undermined the role of the A/E firm as the prime professional acting on behalf of the owner to supervise the contractor. Design/Construct Firms A common trend in industrial construction, particularly for large projects, is to engage the services of a design/construct firm. By integrating design and construction management in a single organization, many of the conflicts between designers and constructors might be avoided. In particular, designs will be closely scrutinized for their constructibility. However, an owner engaging a design/construct firm must insure that the quality of the constructed facility is not sacrificed by the desire to reduce the time or the cost for completing the project. Also, it is difficult to make use of competitive bidding in this type of design/construct process. As a result, owners must be relatively sophisticated in negotiating realistic and cost-effective construction contracts. One of the most obvious advantages of the integrated design/construct process is the use of phased construction for a large project. In this process, the project is divided up into several phases, each of which can be designed and constructed in a staggered manner. After the completion of the design of the first phase, construction can begin without waiting for the completion of the design of the second phase, etc. If proper coordination is exercised. the total project duration can be greatly reduced. Another advantage is to exploit the possibility of using the turnkey approach whereby an owner can delegate all responsibility to the esign/construct firm which will deliver to the owner a completed facility that meets the performance specifications at the specified price. Professional Construction Managers In recent years, a new breed of construction managers (CM) offers professional services from the inception to the completion of a construction project. These construction managers mostly come from the ranks of A/E firms or general contractors who may or may not retain dual roles in the service of the owners. In any case, the owner can rely on the service of a single prime professional to manage the entire process of a construction project. However, like the A/E firms of several decades ago, the construction managers are appreciated by some owners but not by others. Before long, some owners find that the construction managers too may try to protect their own interest instead of that of the owners when the stakes are high. It should be obvious to all involved in the construction process that the party which is required to take higher risk demands larger rewards. If an owner wants to engage an A/E firm on the basis of low fees instead of established qualifications, it often gets what it deserves; or if the owner wants the general contractor to bear the cost of uncertainties in construction such as foundation conditions, the contract price will be higher even if competitive bidding is used in reaching a contractual agreement. Without mutual respect and trust, an owner cannot expect that construction managers can produce better results than other professionals. Hence, an owner must understand its own responsibility and the risk it wishes to assign to itself and to other participants in the process. Operation and Maintenance Managers Although many owners keep a permanent staff for the operation and maintenance of constructed facilities, others may prefer to contract such tasks to professional managers. Understandably, it is common to find in-house staff for operation and maintenance in specialized industrial plants and infrastructure facilities, and the use of outside managers under contracts for the operation and maintenance of rental properties such as apartments and office buildings. However, there are exceptions to these common practices. For example, maintenance of public roadways can be contracted to private firms. In any case, managers can provide a spectrum of operation and maintenance services for a specified time period in accordance to the terms of contractual agreements. Thus, the owners can be spared the provision of in-house expertise to operate and maintain the facilities. Facilities Management As a logical extension for obtaining the best services throughout the project life cycle of a constructed facility, some owners and developers are receptive to adding strategic planning at the beginning and facility maintenance as a follow-up to reduce space-related costs in their real estate holdings. Consequently, some architectural/engineering firms and construction management firms with computer-based expertise, together with interior design firms, are offering such front-end and follow-up services in addition to the more traditional services in design and construction. This spectrum of services is described in Engineering News-Record (now ENR) as follows: [2] Facilities management is the discipline of planning, designing, constructing and managing space — in every type of structure from office buildings to process plants. It involves developing corporate facilities policy, long-range forecasts, real estate, space inventories, projects (through design, construction and renovation), building operation and maintenance plans and furniture and equipment inventories. A common denominator of all firms entering into these new services is that they all have strong computer capabilities and heavy computer investments. In addition to the use of computers for aiding design and monitoring construction, the service includes the compilation of a computer record of building plans that can be turned over at the end of construction to the facilities management group of the owner. A computer data base of facilities information makes it possible for planners in the owner's organization to obtain overview information for long range space forecasts, while the line managers can use as-built information such as lease/tenant records, utility costs, etc. for day-to-day operations. Back to top 1. 5 Construction Contractors Builders who supervise the execution of construction projects are traditionally referred to as contractors, or more appropriately called constructors. The general contractor coordinates various tasks for a project while the specialty contractors such as mechanical or electrical contractors perform the work in their specialties. Material and equipment suppliers often act as installation contractors; they play a significant role in a construction project since the conditions of delivery of materials and equipment affect the quality, cost, and timely completion of the project. It is essential to understand the operation of these contractors in order to deal with them effectively. General Contractors The function of a general contractor is to coordinate all tasks in a construction project. Unless the owner performs this function or engages a professional construction manager to do so, a good general contractor who has worked with a team of superintendents, specialty contractors or subcontractors together for a number of projects in the past can be most effective in inspiring loyalty and cooperation. The general contractor is also knowledgeable about the labor force employed in construction. The labor force may or may not be unionized depending on the size and location of the projects. In some projects, no member of the work force belongs to a labor union; in other cases, both union and non-union craftsmen work together in what is called an open shop, or all craftsmen must be affiliated with labor unions in a closed shop. Since labor unions provide hiring halls staffed with skilled journeyman who have gone through apprentice programs for the projects as well as serving as collective bargain units, an experienced general contractor will make good use of the benefits and avoid the pitfalls in dealing with organized labor. Specialty Contractors Specialty contractors include mechanical, electrical, foundation, excavation, and demolition contractors among others. They usually serve as subcontractors to the general contractor of a project. In some cases, legal statutes may require an owner to deal with various specialty contractors directly. In the State of New York, for example, specialty contractors, such as mechanical and electrical contractors, are not subjected to the supervision of the general contractor of a construction project and must be given separate prime contracts on public works. With the exception of such special cases, an owner will hold the general contractor responsible for negotiating and fulfilling the contractual agreements with the subcontractors. Material and Equipment Suppliers Major material suppliers include specialty contractors in structural steel fabrication and erection, sheet metal, ready mixed concrete delivery, reinforcing steel bar detailers, roofing, glazing etc. Major equipment suppliers for industrial construction include manufacturers of generators, boilers and piping and other equipment. Many suppliers handle on-site installation to insure that the requirements and contractual specifications are met. As more and larger structural units are prefabricated off-site, the distribution between specialty contractors and material suppliers becomes even less obvious. Back to top 1. 6 Financing of Constructed Facilities A major construction project requires an enormous amount of capital that is often supplied by lenders who want to be assured that the project will offer a fair return on the investment. The direct costs associated with a major construction project may be broadly classified into two categories: (1) the construction expenses paid to the general contractor for erecting the facility on site and (2) the expenses for land acquisition, legal fees, architect/engineer fees, construction management fees, interest on construction loans and the opportunity cost of carrying empty space in the facility until it is fully occupied. The direct construction costs in the first category represent approximately 60 to 80 percent of the total costs in most construction projects. Since the costs of construction are ultimately borne by the owner, careful financial planning for the facility must be made prior to construction. Construction Financing Construction loans to contractors are usually provided by banks or savings and loan associations for construction financing. Upon the completion of the facility, construction loans will be terminated and the post-construction facility financing will be arranged by the owner. Construction loans provided for different types of construction vary. In the case of residential housing, construction loans and long-term mortgages can be obtained from savings and loans associations or commercial banks. For institutional and commercial buildings, construction loans are usually obtained from commercial banks. Since the value of specialized industrial buildings as collateral for loans is limited, construction loans in this domain are rare, and construction financing can be done from the pool of general corporate funds. For infrastructure construction owned by government, the property cannot be used as security for a private loan, but there are many possible ways to finance the construction, such as general appropriation from taxation or special bonds issued for the project. Traditionally, banks serve as construction lenders in a three-party agreement among the contractor, the owner and the bank. The stipulated loan will be paid to the contractor on an agreed schedule upon the verification of completion of various portions of the project. Generally, a payment request together with a standard progress report will be submitted each month by the contractor to the owner which in turn submits a draw request to the bank. Provided that the work to date has been performed satisfactorily, the disbursement is made on that basis during the construction period. Under such circumstances, the bank has been primarily concerned with the completion of the facility on time and within the budget. The economic life of the facility after its completion is not a concern because of the transfer of risk to the owner or an institutional lender. Facility Financing Many private corporations maintain a pool of general funds resulting from retained earnings and long-term borrowing on the strength of corporate assets, which can be used for facility financing. Similarly, for public agencies, the long-term funding may be obtained from the commitment of general tax revenues from the federal, state and/or local governments. Both private corporations and public agencies may issue special bonds for the constructed facilities which may obtain lower interest rates than other forms of borrowing. Short-term borrowing may also be used for bridging the gaps in long-term financing. Some corporate bonds are convertible to stocks under circumstances specified in the bond agreement. For public facilities, the assessment of user fees to repay the bond funds merits consideration for certain types of facilities such as toll roads and sewage treatment plants. [3] The use of mortgages is primarily confined to rental properties such as apartments and office buildings. Because of the sudden surge of interest rates in the late 1970's, many financial institutions offer, in addition to he traditional fixed rate long-term mortgage commitments, other arrangements such as a combination of debt and a percentage of ownership in exchange for a long-term mortgage or the use of adjustable rate mortgages. In some cases, the construction loan may be granted on an open-ended basis without a long-term financing commitment. For example, the plan might be issued for the construction period with an option to extend it for a period of up to three years in order to give the owner more time to seek alternative long-term financing on the completed facility. The bank will be drawn into situations involving financial risk if it chooses to be a lender without long-term guarantees. For international projects, the currency used for financing agreements becomes important. If financial agreements are written in terms of local currencies, then fluctuations in the currency exchange rate can significantly affect the cost and ultimately profit of a project. In some cases, payments might also be made in particular commodities such as petroleum or the output from the facility itself. Again, these arrangements result in greater uncertainty in the financing scheme because the price of these commodities may vary. Back to top 1. 7 Legal and Regulatory Requirements The owners of facilities naturally want legal protection for all the activities involved in the construction. It is equally obvious that they should seek competent legal advice. However, there are certain principles that should be recognized by owners in order to avoid unnecessary pitfalls. Legal Responsibilities Activities in construction often involve risks, both physical and financial. An owner generally tries to shift the risks to other parties to the degree possible when entering into contractual agreements with them. However, such action is not without cost or risk. For example, a contractor who is assigned the risks may either ask for a higher contract price to compensate for the higher risks, or end up in non-performance or bankruptcy as an act of desperation. Such consequences can be avoided if the owner is reasonable in risk allocation. When risks are allocated to different parties, the owner must understand the implications and spell them out clearly. Sometimes there are statutory limitations on the allocation of liabilities among various groups, such as prohibition against the allocation of negligence in design to the contractor. An owner must realize its superior power in bargaining and hence the responsibilities associated with this power in making contractual agreements. Mitigation of Conflicts It is important for the owner to use legal counselors as advisors to mitigate conflicts before they happen rather than to wield conflicts as weapons against other parties. There are enough problems in design and construction due to uncertainty rather than bad intentions. The owner should recognize the more enlightened approaches for mitigating conflicts, such as using owner-controlled wrap-up insurance which will provide protection for all parties involved in the construction process for unforeseen risks, or using arbitration, mediation and other extra-judicial solutions for disputes among various parties. However, these compromise solutions are not without pitfalls and should be adopted only on the merit of individual cases. Government Regulation To protect public safety and welfare, legislatures and various government agencies periodically issue regulations which influence the construction process, the operation of constructed facilities, and their ultimate disposal. For example, building codes promulgated by local authorities have provided guidelines for design and construction practices for a very long time. Since the 1970's, many federal regulations that are related directly or indirectly to construction have been established in the United States. Among them are safety standards for workers issued by the Occupational Health and Safety Administration, environmental standards on pollutants and toxic wastes issued by the Environmental Protection Agency, and design and operation procedures for nuclear power plants issued by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Owners must be aware of the impacts of these regulations on the costs and durations of various types of construction projects as well as possibilities of litigation due to various contentions. For example, owners acquiring sites for new construction may be strictly liable for any hazardous wastes already on the site or removed from the site under the U. S. Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability (CERCL) Act of 1980. For large scale projects involving new technologies, the construction costs often escalate with the uncertainty associated with such restrictions. Back to top 1. 8 The Changing Environment of the Construction Industry The construction industry is a conglomeration of diverse fields and participants that have been loosely lumped together as a sector of the economy. The construction industry plays a central role in national welfare, including the development of residential housing, office buildings and industrial plants, and the restoration of the nation's infrastructure and other public facilities. The importance of the construction industry lies in the function of its products which provide the foundation for industrial production, and its impacts on the national economy cannot be measured by the value of its output or the number of persons employed in its activities alone. To be more specific, construction refers to all types of activities usually associated with the erection and repair of immobile facilities. Contract construction consists of a large number of firms that perform construction work for others, and is estimated to be approximately 85% of all construction activities. The remaining 15% of construction is performed by owners of the facilities, and is referred to as force-account construction. Although the number of contractors in the United States exceeds a million, over 60% of all contractor construction is performed by the top 400 contractors. The value of new construction in the United States (expressed in constant dollars) and the value of construction as a percentage of the gross national products from 1950 to 1985 are shown in Figures 1-6 and 1-7. It can be seen that construction is a significant factor in the Gross National Product although its importance has been declining in recent years. [4] Not to be ignored is the fact that as the nation's constructed facilities become older, the total expenditure on rehabilitation and maintenance may increase relative to the value of new construction. Figure 1-6:   Value of New Construction in the United States, 1975-1995 Figure 1-7:   Construction as Percentage of Gross Domestic Product in the United States, 1975-1995 Owners who pay close attention to the peculiar characteristics of the construction industry and its changing operating environment will be able to take advantage of the favorable conditions and to avoid the pitfalls. Several factors are particularly noteworthy because of their significant impacts on the quality, cost and time of construction. New Technologies In recent years, technological innovation in design, materials and construction methods have resulted in significant changes in construction costs. Computer-aids have improved capabilities for generating quality designs as well as reducing the time required to produce alternative designs. New materials not only have enhanced the quality of construction but also have shortened the time for shop fabrication and field erection. Construction methods have gone through various stages of mechanization and automation, including the latest development of construction robotics. The most dramatic new technology applied to construction has been the Internet and its private, corporate Intranet versions. The Internet is widely used as a means to foster collaboration among professionals on a project, to communicate for bids and results, and to procure necessary goods and services. Real time video from specific construction sites is widely used to illustrate construction progress to interested parties. The result has been more effective collaboration, communication and procurement. The effects of many new technologies on construction costs have been mixed because of the high development costs for new technologies. However, it is unmistakable that design professionals and construction contractors who have not adapted to changing technologies have been forced out of the mainstream of design and construction activities. Ultimately, construction quality and cost can be improved with the adoption of new technologies which are proved to be efficient from both the viewpoints of performance and economy. Labor Productivity The term productivity is generally defined as a ratio of the production output volume to the input volume of resources. Since both output and input can be quantified in a number of ways, there is no single measure of productivity that is universally applicable, particularly in the construction industry where the products are often unique and there is no standard for specifying the levels for aggregation of data. However, since labor constitutes a large part of the cost of construction, labor productivity in terms of output volume (constant dollar value or functional units) per person-hour is a useful measure. Labor productivity measured in this way does not necessarily indicate the efficiency of labor alone but rather measures the combined effects of labor, equipment and other factors contributing to the output. While aggregate construction industry productivity is important as a measure of national economy, owners are more concerned about the labor productivity of basic units of work produced by various crafts on site. Thus, an owner can compare the labor performance at different geographic locations, under different working conditions, and for different types and sizes of projects. Construction costs usually run parallel to material prices and labor wages. Actually, over the years, labor productivity has increased in some traditional types of construction and thus provides a leveling or compensating effect when hourly rates for labor increase faster than other costs in construction. However, labor productivity has been stagnant or even declined in unconventional or large scale projects. Public Scrutiny Under the present litigious climate in the United States, the public is increasingly vocal in the scrutiny of construction project activities. Sometimes it may result in considerable difficulty in siting new facilities as well as additional expenses during the construction process itself. Owners must be prepared to manage such crises before they get out of control. Figure 1-8 can serve to indicate public attitudes towards the siting of new facilities. It represents the cumulative percentage of individuals who would be willing to accept a new industrial facility at various distances from their homes. For example, over fifty percent of the people surveyed would accept a ten-story office building within five miles of their home, but only twenty-five percent would accept a large factory or coal fired power plant at a similar distance. An even lower percentage would accept a hazardous waste disposal site or a nuclear power plant. Even at a distance of one hundred miles, a significant fraction of the public would be unwilling to accept hazardous waste facilities or nuclear power plants. Figure 1-8:   Public Acceptance Towards New Facilities (Reprinted from Environmental Quality – 1980, the Eleventh Annual Report of the Council on Environmental Quality, U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, December 1980. ) This objection to new facilities is a widespread public attitude, representing considerable skepticism about the external benefits and costs which new facilities will impose. It is this public attitude which is likely to make public scrutiny and regulation a continuing concern for the construction industry. International Competition A final trend which deserves note is the increasing level of international competition in the construction industry. Owners are likely to find non-traditional firms bidding for construction work, particularly on large projects. Separate bids from numerous European, North American, and Asian construction firms are not unusual. In the United States, overseas firms are becoming increasingly visible and important. In this environment of heightened competition, good project management and improved productivity are more and more important. A bidding competition for a major new offshore drilling platform illustrates the competitive environment in construction. As described in the Wall Street Journal: [5] Through most of the postwar years, the nation's biggest builders of offshore oil platforms enjoyed an unusually cozy relationship with the Big Oil Companies they served. Their top officials developed personal friendships with oil executives, entertained them at opulent hunting camps- and won contracts to build nearly every major offshore oil platform in the world†¦. But this summer, the good-old boy network fell apart. Shell [Oil Co. awarded the main contract for [a new] platform – taller than Chicago's Sears Tower, four times heavier than the Brooklyn Bridge – to a tiny upstart. The winning bidder arranged overseas fabrication of the rig, kept overhead costs low, and proposed a novel assembly procedure by which construction equipment was mounted on completed sections of the platform in order to speed the completion of the entire structure. The result was lower costs than those estimated and bid by traditional firms. Of course, U. S. firms including A/E firms, contractors and construction managers are also competing in foreign countries. Their success or failure in the international arena may also affect their capacities and vitality to provide services in the domestic U. S. market. Contractor Financed Projects Increasingly, some owners look to contractors or joint ventures as a resource to design, to build and to finance a constructed facility. For example, a utility company may seek a consortium consisting of a design/construct firm and a financial investment firm to assume total liability during construction and thereby eliminate the risks of cost escalation to ratepayers, stockholders and the management. On the other hand, a local sanitation district may seek such a consortium to provide private ownership for a proposed new sewage treatment plant. In the former case, the owner may take over the completed facility and service the debt on construction through long-term financing arrangements; in the latter case, the private owner may operate the completed facility and recover its investment through user fees. The activities of joint ventures among design, construction and investment firms are sometimes referred to as financial engineering. This type of joint venture has become more important in the international construction market where aggressive contractors often win contracts by offering a more attractive financing package rather than superior technology. With a deepening shadow of international debts in recent years, many developing countries are not in a position to undertake any new project without contractor-backed financing. Thus, the contractors or joint ventures in overseas projects are forced into very risky positions if they intend to stay in the competition. Lean Construction Lean manufacturing† had a revolutionary effect on many industries, especially automotive assembly companies. Characteristics of this approach include: * Improvement in quality and reduction of waste everywhere. Rather than increasing costs, reducing defects and waste proved to improve quality and reduce costs. * Empowering workers to be responsible for satisfying customer needs. In construction, for example, craftsman should ma ke sure their work satisfied the design intent. * Continuous improvement of processes involving the entire workforce. Lean construction s intended to spread these practices within the construction industry. Of course, well managed construction projects already have many aspects of lean construction. For example, just-in-time delivery of materials is commonplace to avoid the waste of large inventory stockpiles. Green building projects attempt to re-use or recycle all construction wastes. But the systematic attention to continuous improvement and zero accidents and defects is new. Back to top 1. 9 The Role of Project Managers In the project life cycle, the most influential factors affecting the outcome of the project often reside at the early stages. At this point, decisions should be based on competent economic evaluation with due consideration for adequate financing, the prevalent social and regulatory environment, and technological considerations. Architects and engineers might specialize in planning, in construction field management, or in operation, but as project managers, they must have some familiarity with all such aspects in order to understand properly their role and be able to make competent decisions. Since the 1970's, many large-scale projects have run into serious problems of management, such as cost overruns and long schedule delays. Actually, the management of megaprojects or superprojects is not a practice peculiar to our time. Witness the construction of transcontinental railroads in the Civil War era and the construction of the Panama Canal at the turn of this century. Although the megaprojects of this generation may appear in greater frequency and present a new set of challenge, the problems are organizational rather than technical. As noted by Hardy Cross: [6] It is customary to think of engineering as a part of a trilogy, pure science, applied science and engineering. It needs emphasis that this trilogy is only one of a triad of trilogies into which engineering fits. This first is pure science, applied science and engineering; the second is economic theory, finance and engineering; and the third is social relations, industrial relations and engineering. Many engineering problems are as closely allied to social problems as they are to pure science. As engineers advance professionally, they often spend as much or more time on planning, management and other economic or social problems as on the traditional engineering design and analysis problems which form the core of most educational programs. It is upon the ability of engineers to tackle all such problems that their performance will ultimately be judged. The greatest stumbling block to effective management in construction is the inertia and historic divisions among planners, designers and constructors. While technical competence in design and innovation remains the foundation of engineering practice, the social, economic and organizational factors that are pervasive in influencing the success and failure of construction projects must also be dealt with effectively by design and construction organizations. Of course, engineers are not expected to know every detail of management techniques, but they must be knowledgeable enough to anticipate the problems of management so that they can work harmoniously with professionals in related fields to overcome the inertia and historic divisions. Paradoxically, engineers who are creative in engineering design are often innovative in planning and management since both types of activities involve problem solving. In fact, they can reinforce each other if both are included in the education process, provided that creativity and innovation instead of routine practice are emphasized. A project manager who is well educated in the fundamental principles of engineering design and management can usefully apply such principles once he or she has acquired basic understanding of a new application area. A project manager who has been trained by rote learning for a specific type of project may merely gain one year of experience repeated twenty times even if he or she has been in the field for twenty years. A broadly educated project manager can reasonably hope to become a leader in the profession; a narrowly trained project manager is often relegated to the role of his or her first job level permanently. The owners have much at stake in selecting a competent project manager and in providing her or him with the authority to assume responsibility at various stages of the project regardless of the types of contractual agreements for implementing the project. Of course, the project manager must also possess the leadership quality and the ability to handle effectively intricate interpersonal relationships within an organization. The ultimate test of the education and experience of a project manager for construction lies in her or his ability to apply fundamental principles to solving problems in the new and unfamiliar situations which have become the hallmarks of the changing environment in the construction industry. Back to top 1. 10 References 1. Au, T. and C. Hendrickson, â€Å"Education in Engineering Planning and Management,† Proceedings of the ASCE Conference on Civil Engineering Education, Columbus, Ohio, 1985. 2. Barrie, D. S. editor), Directions in Managing Construction, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1981. 3. Lean Construction Institute, http://www. leanconstruction. org/ 4. Bonny, J. B. and J. P. Frein, Handbook of Construction Management and Organization, 2nd Edition, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. , New York, 1980. 5. Hasagawa, Fumio et. al. , â€Å"Built by Japan,† John Wiley ; Sons, 1988. 6. Lang, J. E. and D. Q. Mills, The Construction Industry, Lexington Books, Lexington, MA, 1979. 7. Walker, N. , E. N. Walker and T. K. Rohdenburg, Legal Pitfalls in Architecture, Engineering and Building Construction, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Co. , New York, 1979. Back to top 1. 11 Footnotes 1. The Business Roundtable, More Construction for the Money, Summary Report of the Construction Industry Cost Effectiveness Project, January 1983, p. 11. Back 2. â€Å"Hot New Market Lures A-E Players to Cutting Edges,† Engineering News-Record, April 4, 1985, pp. 30-37. Back 3. See Hendrickson, C. , â€Å"Financing Civil Works with User Fees,† Civil Engineering, Vol. 53, No. , February 1983, pp. 71-72. Back 4. The graph is derived from data in â€Å"Value of New Construction Put in Place, 1960-1983†, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 105th Edition, U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census, 1985, pp. 722-723, as well as the information in earlier editions. Back 5. See Petzinger, Thomas Jr. , â€Å"Upstart's Winning Bid for Offshore Platform Stuns its Older Rivals,† Wall Street Journ al, p. 1, c. 6, Nov. 20, 1985. Back 6. See H. Cross, Engineers and Ivory Towers, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc. , New York, 1952. Back Table of Contents| || Next Chapter| Go Up to Table of Contents| | Go To Chapter 2 (Organizing for Project Management)| The Owners' Perspective Introduction The Project Life Cycle Major Types of Construction Selection of Professional Services Construction Contractors Financing of Constructed Facilities Legal and Regulatory Requirements The Changing Environment of the Construction Industry   Ã‚  Ã‚   The Role of Project Managers References Footnotes| | | 1. The Owners' Perspective 1. 1 Introduction Like the five blind men encountering different parts of an elephant, each of the numerous participants in the process of planning, designing, financing, constructing and operating physical facilities has a different perspective on project management for construction. Specialized knowledge can be very beneficial, particularly in large and complicated projects, since experts in various specialties can provide valuable services. However, it is advantageous to understand how the different parts of the process fit together. Waste, excessive cost and delays can result from poor coordination and communication among specialists. It is particularly in the interest of owners to insure that such problems do not occur. And it behooves all participants in the process to heed the interests of owners because, in the end, it is the owners who provide the resources and call the shots. By adopting the viewpoint of the owners, we can focus our attention on the complete process of project management for constructed facilities rather than the historical roles of various specialists such as planners, architects, engineering designers, constructors, fabricators, material suppliers, financial analysts and others. To be sure, each specialty has made important advances in developing new techniques and tools for efficient implementation of construction projects. However, it is through the understanding of the entire process of project management that these specialists can respond more effectively to the owner's desires for their services, in marketing their specialties, and in improving the productivity and quality of their work. The introduction of innovative and more effective project management for construction is not an academic exercise. As reported by the â€Å"Construction Industry Cost Effectiveness Project† of the Business Roundtable: [1] By common consensus and every available measure, the United States no longer gets it's money's worth in construction, the nation's largest industry †¦ The creeping erosion of construction efficiency and productivity is bad news for the entire U. S. economy. Construction is a particularly seminal industry. The price of every factory, office building, hotel or power plant that is built affects the price that must be charged for the goods or services produced in it or by it. And that effect generally persists for decades †¦ Too much of the industry remains tethered to the past, partly by inertia and partly by historic divisions†¦ Improvement of project management not only can aid the construction industry, but may also be the engine for the national and world economy. However, if we are to make meaningful improvements, we must first understand the construction industry, its operating environment and the institutional constraints affecting its activities as well as the nature of project management. Back to top 1. 2 The Project Life Cycle The acquisition of a constructed facility usually represents a major capital investment, whether its owner happens to be an individual, a private corporation or a public agency. Since the commitment of resources for such an investment is motivated by market demands or perceived needs, the facility is expected to satisfy certain objectives within the constraints specified by the owner and relevant regulations. With the exception of the speculative housing market, where the residential units may be sold as built by the real estate developer, most constructed facilities are custom made in consultation with the owners. A real estate developer may be regarded as the sponsor of building projects, as much as a government agency may be the sponsor of a public project and turns it over to another government unit upon its completion. From the viewpoint of project management, the terms â€Å"owner† and â€Å"sponsor† are synonymous because both have the ultimate authority to make all important decisions. Since an owner is essentially acquiring a facility on a promise in some form of agreement, it will be wise for any owner to have a clear understanding of the acquisition process in order to maintain firm control of the quality, timeliness and cost of the completed facility. From the perspective of an owner, the project life cycle for a constructed facility may be illustrated schematically in Figure 1-1. Essentially, a project is conceived to meet market demands or needs in a timely fashion. Various possibilities may be considered in the conceptual planning stage, and the technological and economic feasibility of each alternative will be assessed and compared in order to select the best possible project. The financing schemes for the proposed alternatives must also be examined, and the project will be programmed with respect to the timing for its completion and for available cash flows. After the scope of the project is clearly defined, detailed engineering design will provide the blueprint for construction, and the definitive cost estimate will serve as the baseline for cost control. In the procurement and construction stage, the delivery of materials and the erection of the project on site must be carefully planned and controlled. After the construction is completed, there is usually a brief period of start-up or shake-down of the constructed facility when it is first occupied. Finally, the management of the facility is turned over to the owner for full occupancy until the facility lives out its useful life and is designated for demolition or conversion. Figure 1-1:   The Project Life Cycle of a Constructed Facility Of course, the stages of development in Figure 1-1 may not be strictly sequential. Some of the stages require iteration, and others may be carried out in parallel or with overlapping time frames, depending on the nature, size and urgency of the project. Furthermore, an owner may have in-house capacities to handle the work in every stage of the entire process, or it may seek professional advice and services for the work in all stages. Understandably, most owners choose to handle some of the work in-house and to contract outside professional services for other components of the work as needed. By examining the project life cycle from an owner's perspective we can focus on the proper roles of various activities and participants in all stages regardless of the contractual arrangements for different types of work. In the United States, for example, the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers has in-house capabilities to deal with planning, budgeting, design, construction and operation of waterway and flood control structures. Other public agencies, such as state transportation departments, are also deeply involved in all phases of a construction project. In the private sector, many large firms such as DuPont, Exxon, and IBM are adequately staffe